Punched Cards and Computers: The History of the First Information Storage Media

Contents:

• Korsakov's Homeoscope - A Mechanical Computer for Finding Drugs
• Hollerith's Tabulator - A Machine for Calculating Census Data
• The IBM Era
• Punch Cards and Computers
• The Death of Punch Cards and the Hard Drive - The Centipede

A computer processes information in binary, where the presence of voltage corresponds to one, and its absence to zero. To illustrate this process, we can imagine a simple data input device consisting of a wire and a metal plate. When the wire touches the plate, an electrical impulse is generated, which signals the computer that the user wants to transmit information. Thus, the basis of human-computer interaction is the conversion of physical contact into digital commands that the system can interpret and process.

Now let's transform the wires into a "brush", divide the plate into small sectors, take a piece of cardboard and drill several holes in it. By placing the cardboard between the brush and the plate, we create the ability to encode information. The wires above the holes will touch the record, while the rest will be insulated by cardboard. Thus, those sectors of the record touched by the wires will represent ones, and the rest will represent zeros. This method allows for efficient data transfer using simple materials and principles.

The legendary punched cards operated on precisely this principle. These devices were used to store and transmit information, enabling automated data processing. Punched cards were paper cards with holes that encoded information. Each combination of holes corresponded to a specific symbol or command. This significantly simplified data processing and became an important step in the development of computing technology.

Korsakov's Homeoscope — a Mechanical Computer for Drug Discovery

The first punched cards designed for full-fledged storage and encoding of information were first used in the practice of the Russian physician Semyon Nikolaevich Korsakov. Before the advent of these cards, punched cards were used exclusively in Jacquard looms, where they served to control threads and store pattern data. Korsakov became an innovator in the use of punched cards for medical and information purposes, which opened new horizons in the field of information storage and processing.

In 1832, Korsakov demonstrated his unique development — the homeoscope — to the Academy of Sciences. This machine was designed to encode information on wooden plates with holes, which made it possible to record data such as disease symptoms and corresponding medications. The homeoscope was an important step in the history of medicine, as it facilitated the systematization of knowledge about diseases and treatments, which in turn improved diagnosis and therapy based on data presented in an easily understandable format.

To find the necessary information, a bar with sliding pins was used, each of which answered the question: "Yes or no?" For example, it could be used to determine whether a patient had a headache. Korsakov used the pins to create a complete picture of the patient's illness and then checked whether the pins matched the holes on the homeoscope's punched card to determine the appropriate remedy. This method made it possible to systematize data and find effective solutions in treatment, improving the diagnosis and therapy of patients.

In modern conditions, the homeoscope can be considered as a device for analyzing big data. The number of elements in the array could reach several thousand, which is a significant achievement for the 19th century. This device became an important tool in processing and interpreting vast amounts of information, opening new horizons for research and data analysis.

Korsakov aimed for more. He not only created a unique machine but also described in detail its application for searching for information in large data sets using various criteria. He also developed methods for comparing records by various features. Moreover, Korsakov attempted to formulate a definition of an algorithm, which emphasizes his contribution to the development of data processing technologies.

Korsakov published a brochure about his invention and presented it to the Imperial Academy of Sciences in St. Petersburg. However, the academics did not understand the essence of the development and rejected it. In their rejection, they noted that "Mr. Korsakov spent a lot of intelligence on teaching others to do without intelligence at all." Thus, the first Russian computer revolution ended without due recognition, leaving behind bewilderment and unappreciated potential.

Hollerith Tabulator - a machine for calculating census data

The era of punched cards began in 1890 with the invention of Herman Hollerith's machine for calculating the results of the census in the United States. This innovation became the basis for the subsequent development of computing and data processing. Punched cards were used to store and process information, which significantly accelerated and simplified automation processes. As a result, the Hollerith system had a significant impact on various fields, including accounting, statistics, and scientific research.

According to American law, a census is conducted every ten years. This is necessary for the accurate determination of tax rates and the distribution of budget funds. In the 19th century, processing census data was time-consuming, often continuing until the next census. By 1890, the US government realized that manual data processing was too time-consuming, expensive, and unreliable. So, a competition was announced to create a machine that could streamline the process. The winner was a young engineer, Herman Hollerith, who developed a method for recording respondent information on punched cards. This innovative approach became the basis for automating data processing and ushered in a new era in statistics and computing. The idea was that each response to the census questions—about gender, age, religion, and other aspects—would be recorded using holes on a card with a table. For example, if a respondent was asked about marital status, the presence of a hole indicated "married," while the absence of a hole meant "single." This approach allowed for the quick and efficient collection and processing of data, significantly simplifying the process of analyzing census data.

Hollerith drew ideas from the practice of American railroads, where tickets were often resold or transferred to other people, making document verification ineffective due to the ease of counterfeiting. In response to this problem, railroad companies began including a coded description of the passenger directly on the ticket. This description contained characteristics such as gender, approximate age, height, skin color, hair color, and other distinguishing features. This approach significantly increased security and simplified passenger identification.

Tickets were punched in specific places for conductors to read and interpret. Passengers were generally unaware of the meaning of these codes. This innovative method was called "punched photograph."

Hollerith became interested in this system and decided to use cards consisting of 12 rows and 24 columns. This decision became an important step in the development of data processing technologies. The use of cards allowed for the effective organization and systematization of information, which significantly simplified the analysis of large amounts of data.

Hollerith developed a unique punch machine that significantly accelerated the process of filling out spreadsheets for data collectors. This tool allowed for efficient information processing, which facilitated faster analysis and processing of large volumes of data. Thanks to Hollerith's innovative approach, working with spreadsheets became more productive and less labor-intensive.

The information-reading device resembled a piano with dials on which divisions were located. It was accompanied by a special drawer for punched cards. When a punch card was inserted, spring-loaded conductors passed through the holes and dipped into a flask of mercury, creating a pulse that allowed the machine to record the answer. This device had 40 dials, each with 100 divisions. The first dial read units, the second - hundreds, the third - tens of thousands, and so on. This equipment played an important role in information processing and automation of calculations.

Thanks to Hollerith's developments, calculating the results of the next US census was reduced to three months instead of ten years. This resulted in savings of about $5 million, which is equivalent to almost $150 million in today's prices. Hollerith's technological innovations significantly increased the efficiency of data processing and became the basis for further innovations in the field of statistics and accounting.

The IBM Era

Hollerith improved his calculating machine throughout his life. He developed a device for automatic card feeding, which significantly increased the speed of data processing. In addition, Hollerith taught his machine not only to read units, but also to perform simple arithmetic operations. These innovations laid the foundation for future computing technologies and greatly simplified information processing.

In the early 20th century, Hollerith's machines became indispensable tools for accountants, earning the name "accounting machines." Hollerith eventually founded a company that changed its name several times, eventually becoming IBM in 1924. This iconic blue giant arose from punch card technology, which played a key role in the development of computing. Since then, IBM has continued to innovate and left a significant mark on the history of information technology.

In the early days of punch cards, a variety of formats were developed, differing in the number of rows and columns. However, by the late 1920s, it became clear that a unified standard was needed to effectively use punch cards. IBM introduced such a standard, which included 80 columns and 10 rows with rectangular holes, allowing more information to be placed on each card. This standard became the basis for the further development of data processing technologies.

The punch card format has remained virtually unchanged throughout its history. In the 1960s, punched cards with rounded corners began to be produced in the United States, while the Soviet Union continued to produce them in the traditional rectangular format until the very end. This stable design facilitated their widespread use in computing and ensured compatibility between various devices. In the post-war years, punched cards became an integral part of the Western world. Receipts, bank receipts, and accounting documents were printed on them. At this time, improved accounting machines—tabulators that worked with punched cards—appeared. These devices had the ability to sort cards, read multiple cards simultaneously, compare them according to various criteria, perform arithmetic operations, and print the results on the new punched cards. This approach significantly simplified data processing and increased the efficiency of accountants.

Although these machines cannot be considered computers due to the inability to program, they significantly simplified document management in enterprises. Their popularity was so great that some organizations continued to use them even at the beginning of the 21st century, in the era of computer technology, although production of these devices ceased in the 1970s. These machines became an integral part of the workflow, allowing for streamlined document management and increased efficiency.

Specialized devices known as punches were used to punch cards. The first models of punches were manual and resembled standard hole punches. Over time, these devices evolved, acquiring more complex mechanisms and functions, making them similar to typewriters. Punch cards played a key role in the automation of data processing, allowing for the quick and efficient creation of punched cards for use in computers. A keyboard operator entered characters, which the machine encoded and punched onto punched cards. IBM developed pocket punch cards designed for field accounting. These devices were similar in size and shape to modern tablets.

In the 1960s and 1970s, punched cards were produced in huge quantities around the world, reaching millions of copies daily. IBM became the leading company in this field, which occupied a dominant position in the market. However, due to antitrust requirements of the US government, IBM was forced to divide its business so that its share in production did not exceed 50%. This decision opened the way for other manufacturers, thereby changing the punch card market and information technology as a whole.

Punch Cards and Computers

In the first decades of their existence, computers used punched cards to store information and enter programs. Each punch card represented a line of code containing up to 80 characters. Each column contained one character, with numbers encoded using a single punch, and letters and special characters using multiple punches. This method was the primary method of interacting with computers before the advent of more modern data storage technologies.

The top of the punched card typically contained human-readable text, which avoided confusion and made it easier to interpret. This simplified the process of working with punched cards, making them more user-friendly. Human-readable text served as an important reference point, allowing the card's contents to be quickly understood without having to analyze the perforations themselves.

Text on punched cards could be entered in two ways: using binary code, where zeros and ones represented data, and using letters, where each column corresponded to one character. In practice, the second method was the most common, as it provided a more convenient and intuitive presentation of information.

Punch cards in a stack provided the ability to sort, change the order, delete and add new cards. This ensured convenience in managing the sequence of commands in the program. At their core, punch cards functioned similarly to modern word processors, allowing users to efficiently organize and edit information.

The punch card format significantly influenced the evolution of computer technology. If you open the BIOS or encounter a blue screen of death (BSoD) in Windows, notice the number of characters per line—exactly 80. This is because a single punch card could hold exactly that many characters. The influence of punch cards on modern computer architecture and software is undeniable, as they laid the foundation for data processing and the interfaces we use today.

The Death of Punched Cards and the Hard Drive - a Centipede

Punched cards had their advantages, but their storage capacity left much to be desired. The 80-character limitation was woefully inadequate. Storing a gigabyte of information on punched cards would require 22 tons. The advent of magnetic tape and optical discs marked the beginning of the end for punched cards, which gradually fell out of use. However, they remained relevant for a long time; even as late as 2011, Cardamation, a punched card company, was still operating in the United States.

IBM continued its efforts in the field of punched cards even into the 21st century. The company's engineers sought to develop a storage device with the capacity of a hard drive, but at the same time operating at the speed of RAM. This ambitious goal was achieved through the Millipede project, which marked a significant step in the development of data storage technologies.

The random-access memory (RAM) of modern computers, known as DRAM, operates on capacitors that can be in two states: charged and uncharged. Each capacitor represents a unit of information, or one bit. A computer can simultaneously read and write data from many of these cells, ensuring high processing speeds and efficient program execution. Thanks to this architecture, RAM plays a key role in the performance of modern computing systems.

A hard drive stores data on magnetic platters, which differs from RAM in its operation. The hard drive's head reads information one cell at a time, which leads to delays in accessing data as it must wait for the desired cell to be positioned beneath it. As a result, hard drives are significantly slower than RAM, hundreds of thousands of times slower. However, the physical size of a hard drive's cell is much smaller, allowing significantly more information to be stored per square centimeter. This makes hard drives efficient for storing large amounts of data, despite their slow access speeds.

In the early 2000s, IBM attempted to develop an innovative storage medium that would combine the advantages of various drive types. The result was the nanopunch card project. This technology involved using a special thermopolymer into which microscopic holes were made using a tiny needle. The impressive data storage density allowed up to 128 megabytes of information to be stored per square millimeter of polymer. The device's uniqueness lay not only in its ability to create holes in the material but also in its ability to "seal" them. To read information, multiple sensors were used, which in the first prototypes resembled the legs of a centipede, hence the name. Thus, the nanopunch card represented a promising data storage solution that combined compactness and functionality.

In 2005, Millipede technology seemed quite promising. It consumed significantly less power than traditional hard drives, offered greater capacity, and offered faster performance. However, rapid technological advances led to the emergence of flash drives, which surpassed Millipede in every respect and provided even faster and more efficient operation. As a result, Millipede became obsolete before it even hit the market, failing to establish its place in the data storage industry.

The project is complete, and the era of punch cards appears to be over.

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