Fundamentals of Multimedia Learning for Digital Content Creation

We have already described in detail how American psychologist and professor Richard Mayer, drawing on extensive scientific theories, research, and his own observations, created a cognitive theory of multimedia learning. His work led to the formulation of specific principles that serve as the basis for the development of educational materials that combine various formats—text fragments, images, sound, and animation. Educational content that takes into account a variety of ways of perceiving information, such as reading, listening, and viewing, is called multimedia.

For example, a multimedia online course in which a student listens to a lecture and simultaneously watches a presentation on a screen with textual main ideas, as well as static and dynamic (animated) images.

Richard Mayer formulated a number of principles aimed at creating content that helps students more easily perceive and remember new information. It is important to note that these principles do not concern the development of the educational program itself, but rather its visual design and presentation in a multimedia content format.

In this article, we will analyze the following aspects:

The optimal combination of visual materials, oral explanations, and textual information in an online course is a key aspect for achieving effective learning. Visual elements, such as pictures and graphs, can enhance the perception of information, making it more clear and accessible. Verbal explanations help clarify material, providing a deeper understanding of topics, while text can serve to explore topics in more detail or provide additional information.
It's important to harmoniously integrate these three components so that they complement each other. For example, when introducing a new topic, it's helpful to begin with a short video or audio explanation to provide a general overview. You can then use text blocks to explore key aspects in depth, accompanied by relevant images that visualize the main ideas. This approach creates a multi-layered perception of information, which promotes better memorization and absorption of the material.
The essence of all principles of content organization can be summarized in a few key points: structure, logical sequence, accessibility, and relevance. It is important that information is clearly organized, easily digestible, and relevant to the needs of the audience. Furthermore, it's important to consider the context of the content and create it so it's easy to navigate and find. Knowledge transfer principles encompass the fundamental approaches and methods used to effectively share information and expertise between people. They include aspects such as clarity of presentation, tailoring content to the audience, using visual aids, and actively engaging listeners. Feedback also plays an important role, allowing for clarification and refinement of understanding. These principles help to create a favorable atmosphere for learning and promote deep assimilation of knowledge.
To what extent can we rely on these principles and what grounds exist for their criticism?

The editors express their gratitude to Elena Tikhomirova, CEO of the eLearning center and author of the blog "Live Learning", as well as Mikhail Osipov, creator of the channel "Online Learning Laboratory" and the course "3 Elements" on creating presentations, for their significant assistance in preparing this article.

Fundamental foundations of multimedia learning

Let us briefly recall: the concept of multimedia learning is based on other theoretical approaches:

Cognitive load means that it is necessary to avoid overloading the student's working memory with an excessive amount of information. Otherwise, the acquisition of new information will be difficult, and a person will be able to remember only a little.
Dual coding is based on the principle that for more effective perception and memorization of verbal information, it is useful to additionally use visual elements. This means that two types of presentation should be used to convey knowledge to students - verbal and visual.

Initially, the theory included 12 principles. However, after the publication of the first version of the book "Multimedia Learning", research in this area continued. As a result, in new editions, Richard Mayer and his co-authors included three more principles, thus increasing their total number to 15.

According to Mikhail Osipov, all principles can be roughly grouped into two categories: principles of content structuring and principles of learning. Below, we will consider each of these groups in detail. In this article, we will also provide illustrations with examples created by Mikhail Osipov and the eLearning Center team under the direction of Elena Tikhomirova.

Basic Rules for Structuring Content

This section presents nine fundamental principles that explain how to combine various content formats and offer general design recommendations. Although these principles are now widely used, it is important to remember that they were originally created by Richard Meier for the design of multimedia slides in asynchronous online courses. This applies to courses available for viewing as recordings.

The most convenient method of demonstration is to use examples presented on the slides of educational presentations. When applying these principles to other multimedia educational materials, it is important to critically evaluate how well each one meets your requirements and objectives.

The basic idea is that learning is more effective when educational materials are free of unnecessary information that is not related to the topic. This means no unnecessary text, redundant images, or sounds that could distract.

The principle of coherence dictates that educational materials should include only those elements that contribute to the educational objectives. All unnecessary details and redundant information that could be distracting should be excluded. Otherwise, they will increase the cognitive load and detract from the learning objectives.

Suppose you decide to include several images in your presentation. It is important to ask yourself several questions: “Do they convincingly contribute to understanding the topic? Are they truly useful or are they simply for aesthetic purposes?” If you can't answer these questions with certainty or recognize that the illustration doesn't add educational value, it's probably best to omit it.

The same applies to graphic components, complex aesthetic elements, and unnecessary sound effects. The same applies to text—it's worth analyzing for redundant details that don't add meaning because they're already clear, or elements included simply for their entertainment value, despite having no practical benefit. It is best to get rid of anything distracting or inappropriate.

An example of slide design with and without regard to the principle of consistency. The left slide contains unnecessary elements: bulleted lists (with various marker icons) and illustrations that can distract attention from the key information. The right slide shows only the key information on the topic: it is suitable for use provided the speaker or teacher explains each point or offers additional description. Image: Mikhail Osipov's course on creating educational presentations "3 Elements" / Skillbox Media

The point is that information is absorbed more effectively if the educational material emphasizes key points and provides cues that facilitate understanding of its structure.

On the screen or slide, it is necessary to focus students' attention on the most important points. This can be done, for example, using arrows pointing to key ideas, or by highlighting the main idea with a different font, color, or other means. In an oral presentation, significant points can be emphasized by pauses, intonation, or directly pointed out by saying something like, “Pay attention to this fact, we’ll come back to it!”

Example of slide design taking into account The signaling principle from the Skillbox course "Web Design from Scratch to Pro"Image: Skillbox

The basic idea is that information is absorbed more effectively when two modalities—visual and auditory—are simultaneously engaged. This means that verbal information is more easily remembered if it is accompanied by visual elements, such as images or animations.

Remember dual coding theory? Presenting information in both visual and auditory formats not only reduces the strain on working memory but also promotes better retention. However, this method is only effective for images, not text, as visual information is easier to absorb than verbal information. The optimal approach for conveying educational material is a combination of verbal explanation and visual elements such as illustrations, infographics, photographs, and animations.

It's important to note that, according to the principle of coherence, illustrations should not just be any images, but those that convey educational meaning. The rest of the images are irrelevant.

Research has shown that participants who studied using animated e-learning courses accompanied by sequential verbal explanations demonstrated a higher level of information retention compared to those who studied similar materials in an animated format, but without verbal explanation, relying only on text instructions for reading.

The bottom line is that the effectiveness of information retention increases significantly when it is presented in the form of visual images and verbal explanations, compared to a combination of visualization, verbal explanations, and text information.

Simply put, it is impractical to present the same information in a presentation simultaneously in text format, as an image, and using a voice-over. In this combination of media, text is redundant, as the principle of modality dictates that the most effective way to convey information is to combine oral explanation with visual elements.

Reading and listening are generally incompatible processes. This is because when reading, most people tend to silently repeat the text, which activates not only visual but also auditory perception. When an oral explanation is given, it places additional strain on the ear, as the reader can absorb information faster than the speaker speaks. As a result, the reader's inner voice and the speaker's audio may conflict, interfering with each other.

Of course, this does not mean a complete absence of text on the screen. However, its volume should be significantly reduced, especially if the main information is conveyed orally. For example, it is quite appropriate to briefly outline the main points and provide a list of sources.

An example of slide design without (left) and with (right) the principle of redundancy. The text on the slide on the left is redundant if the teacher comments on the map out loud. Image: Mikhail Osipov's course on creating educational presentations "3 Elements" / Skillbox Media.

An example of slide design with and without the principle of redundancy. The text highlighted in red on the first slide is redundant. These are conclusions that follow from the diagram on the right, and it is better to pronounce them aloud so that the listener can simultaneously study the diagram. Image: eLearning center / Skillbox Media

The basic idea is that using words and images in the learning process promotes more effective assimilation of the material, compared to learning based solely on text information.

We have come to the conclusion that the most effective way to convey educational material is a combination of oral presentation and visual elements. However, if a text explanation must be used, it should be supplemented with illustrations rather than provided in its pure form. This is also related to the concept of dual coding.

Again, it is worth emphasizing that images should serve not so much to create an aesthetic impression, but to illustrate and reveal the meaning contained in the text. This approach allows the student to more easily “integrate” new information, forming not only verbal but also visual mental images. This, in turn, promotes more effective memorization.

An example of slide design with and without taking into account the multimedia principle. The first version contains only text and a random image, while the second version includes an image that figuratively illustrates the content of the text. Image: eLearning center / Skillbox Media

Research shows that students perceive information more effectively when illustrations are placed close to their corresponding captions, rather than at a significant distance from each other.

When an image and its caption are close to each other on a slide, viewers do not need to make additional effort to establish a connection between the visual content and the text. This predictable arrangement of data facilitates information perception and reduces cognitive load.

This principle is relevant not only for images and their descriptions; any elements that are related to each other should be placed close to each other. For example, this may concern an assignment and its accompanying instructions for completion, as well as a question and the corresponding answer.

Examples of slides with incorrect and correct application of the principle of spatial relationship. On the first slide, the captions are located far from the elements they refer to, requiring additional effort for a person to associate them. The second slide has the correct placement, making it more convenient for readers or viewers. Image: Mikhail Osipov's course on creating educational presentations "3 Elements" / Skillbox Media.

Research shows that students perceive information more effectively when visual materials and verbal explanations are presented simultaneously, rather than one at a time.

When a teacher conducts an experiment in physics class, they typically comment on each step as it is being performed. A similar approach is used in online courses. This is necessary to activate both visual and auditory perception, allowing information to be perceived simultaneously in verbal and visual forms. Otherwise, explaining theory first and then demonstrating it in practice (or vice versa) can negatively impact how well students absorb new information.

The basic idea is that people's perception of information is significantly improved when a multimedia message is divided into distinct segments, each of which corresponds to a specific comprehension pace, rather than presented as a single large stream.

In other words, dividing the educational material into small, easily digestible parts helps reduce cognitive load, which, in turn, helps students better retain the information.

It is also important to give students the opportunity to manage the pace of learning, especially in the context of asynchronous courses. To do this, you can implement a speed controller and a "next" button, which will allow you to easily move on to the next slide or section. As a result of his research, Richard Mayer found that students who have the ability to independently regulate the speed of information perception demonstrate higher results in memory tests.

An example of slide design with and without segmentation. The first slide presents the content of the first section of the course without breaking it down into segments (subtopics). The second slide breaks it down into smaller subtopics. Image: eLearning center / Skillbox Media

The basic idea is that the comprehension of information from multimedia materials is significantly improved if the audience has prior knowledge of the terms and concepts mentioned in these messages.

The principle of pre-training states that before diving into a new topic, especially if they are unfamiliar with it and it contains many specific terms, it is important to provide them with basic instructions and a glossary. Here are some steps you can take:

Prepare a starter guide or conduct an introductory lesson covering the main concepts of the course;
An introduction to terminology (glossary) should be provided at the initial stage.

An example of the manifestation of the principle of preliminary Preparation: slide with a glossary from the Skillbox course "Web Design from Scratch to PRO" Illustration: Skillbox

Basic principles of content organization: what are they?

Elena Tikhomirova emphasizes that the main concept of design according to Mayer is the ability to competently combine various media elements. This includes the correct interaction between sound and text, images and text, as well as the combination of all three components: images, text, and sound.

It is necessary to emphasize the key aspect: it is not about the number of illustrations, audio commentary, or text materials, but about their simultaneous interaction. This means that it is important to have both text and images on the screen, audio explanations, or a combination of both.

There are three main ways to convey information in online courses:

visual materials (illustrations, graphs, animations);
an audio file with a verbal explanation of the topic;
Sorry, but I need more information about what you want me to rewrite. Please provide the text you would like to change.

According to Mayer, the most effective way to present new information is to use a combination of two formats, rather than relying on just one or using all three at the same time. It is important to combine verbal and visual approaches, as this facilitates easier perception and memorization of the material.

The optimal option would be to combine visual content with audio recordings, which implies matching images with a simultaneous oral explanation.
Combining textual explanations with visual elements is possible, but this approach demonstrates less effectiveness.
It is completely inappropriate to simultaneously use textual explanations and audio recordings (oral explanations), as this approach is the least productive. Simply put, there is no point in voicing information that is already presented in text form on slides.

The second important aspect of the principles is that all components of multimedia learning should be organized in such a way as not to overload the student with unnecessary cognitive load. In other words, they should be arranged sequentially, interconnected, with a minimum amount of superfluous information and easy to perceive. Mayer explains in detail what is meant by the terms "logical," "convenient," and other similar concepts.

Key Approaches to Effective Knowledge Sharing

This section presents six key principles. They outline important aspects to consider when creating materials for both synchronous and asynchronous learning. These principles cover not only presentation slides but also more modern technologies. However, it is important to remember that technology develops much faster than the accumulation of data for its study.

According to research, people perceive information much more easily when it is presented in the form of informal communication.

First of all, the use of official expressions and specialized terminology hinders the perception of information, as it increases the cognitive load. People often need to first transform what they heard or read into a more accessible and understandable format. Therefore, it's important to explain the subject in an accessible and conversational manner.

Secondly, a relaxed atmosphere gives each student the feeling that the teacher is speaking specifically to them. This, in turn, encourages them to absorb the information more attentively.

Mikhail Osipov, discussing this principle in the context of Skillbox Media, clarifies that it applies to all forms of interaction with students. This means that it applies not only to teachers, but also to mentors, curators, and anyone else who interacts with students.

The basic idea is that information is more effectively perceived when it is delivered by a human voice, rather than a machine voice.

A real human voice can convey emotion and meaning much more effectively than a computer imitation. The first thing that comes to mind is the artificial voice often used by bloggers on TikTok. Mikhail Osipov, commenting for Skillbox Media, cites research by Richard Meyer, who notes that even if a voice created using artificial intelligence closely mimics a human voice, it is still perceived by the audience less favorably than a genuine human voice.

Having an on-screen teacher is not a requirement for effective information absorption.

Richard Meyer advises avoiding the use of "talking heads" in asynchronous courses. In his opinion, for an effective presentation it is enough to use illustrations and text materials.

Why is the image of the speaker necessary:

to show the active involvement of the teacher in the development of the curriculum;
to express the individual point of view of the teacher on the topic of the lesson being discussed;
Please provide the material that needs to be recounted.
Please provide the text that you want to rewrite with an emotional emphasis.

How reliable are Richard Meier's ideas?

At first glance, some principles may seem too simple and obvious. However, Italian researchers, studying the influence of illustrations on the learning process and conducting a series of experiments, found that participants unfamiliar with Meier's theory intuitively came to similar conclusions. This is precisely the reason for the popularity of the theory and principles proposed by the scientist: they are based not on speculation, but on scientific evidence.

Unlike a number of common, but less effective in practice, educational methods, the theory of multimedia learning is based on solid scientific research and justification. Richard Mayer and his team conducted over 200 experiments to investigate each of the principles, many of which were repeated to verify the reliability of the results.

Of course, over the years, this theory has been studied not only by Mayer himself, but also by many other scientists, including researchers from Russia. One of the most relevant and extensive examples is a recent meta-meta-analysis conducted by Australian researchers. They carefully analyzed 29 systematic reviews, which in turn summarized the results of various scientific studies. In total, the reviewed articles covered 1,189 experiments involving more than 79,000 participants.

"Most of the design principles derived from multimedia learning theory have a strong foundation, supported by systematic reviews and meta-analyses. Moreover, we also found support for the core assumptions of cognitive theory of multimedia learning: students learn information more effectively when it is presented simultaneously as images and sounds, provided steps are taken to minimize the risk of cognitive overload," the researchers concluded.

Multimedia learning theory, based on detailed analysis and evidence collection, has taken an important place in modern instructional design. The principles proposed by Mayer find application not only in the creation of slide-based courses and learning materials, but also in a variety of other areas. For example, they are used to develop tools for assessing the quality of visual elements in textbooks, as well as to create resources for digital libraries.

Reasons for Dissatisfaction with Mayer's Principles

Although there is a wealth of evidence, researchers point to some shortcomings. In particular, Australian educator and psychologist John Sweller, who also developed the cognitive load theory, has criticized this theory. He questioned the basic assumption relied on by Richard Mayer regarding the effectiveness of simultaneously perceiving information through visual and auditory channels. Sweller and his colleagues believed that such combined use of these channels may, on the contrary, reduce a person's cognitive resources.

Researchers and scientists also note among the shortcomings of this theory that it ignores both students' motivation and their unique information-processing abilities. A lack of motivation or even ordinary stress can significantly reduce working memory capacity. At the same time, many elements of courses that may seem superfluous and distracting from the perspective of the coherence principle actually play an important role in engaging students and maintaining their attention. Regarding individual differences, some students can easily perceive long lectures, while others lose concentration after just a few minutes. Educational experts believe that the following principles should also be taken into account when using multimedia learning methods: The effectiveness of these principles decreases as the experience and knowledge of the audience increases. Mikhail Osipov emphasizes that all of Mayer's principles are aimed at students with limited educational experience. When using these principles with people with more experience, the results may be significantly less impressive. In other words, people with significant learning experience are able to effectively retrieve the necessary information, even when it comes to reading long and complex texts or working with material presented in an inconvenient format. It is unlikely that reducing cognitive load will significantly improve their learning effectiveness, since it is already at a high level.

The methods proposed by Mayer are not universal and may not be suitable for everyone.

Elena Tikhomirova emphasizes that, despite the empirical validity of these principles, their use should be linked to a specific educational context. For example, the principle of segmentation will not yield significant results if the material is initially simple and presented at a slow pace. And the principle of redundancy will be ineffective for people with visual impairments. Thus, it is important to consider both the characteristics of the learners and the educational material itself when applying the principles of multimedia learning.

Application of Mayer's principles in itself is not a sufficient condition for achieving a high level of design.

Although the presented principles are fairly well developed and clear, they cannot be called exhaustive. "For example, Richard Meier doesn't emphasize the importance of color, which is crucial when creating e-learning materials. If the text is written in light green on a bright yellow background, no principles will help – it's simply impossible to study such material. The same applies to low-quality images or videos, so it's important to maintain overall visual neatness and cleanliness," notes Elena Tikhomirova.

The main thing that experts emphasize is that the principles proposed by Richard Meier, while valuable recommendations, are not rigid prescriptions. These principles can serve as a useful guide, but when creating any educational course or material, the target audience, expected learning outcomes, and available technical resources should be considered as key factors.