A story about Catherine the Great, a talented Serb, and city schools

Contents:

• What Russian schools were like before Catherine's reforms
• How Serb Teodor de Mirievo became an expert on educational reforms
• How Teodor Jankovic got down to business in Russia
• What network of schools was organized
• How did the life of Teodor Jankovic, or Fyodor Ivanovich, develop further?

What Russian schools were like before Catherine's reforms

The public school system in Russia began to take shape under Peter the Great, who opened numeral schools and obliged the nobility, clergy, and merchants to send their children there. However, the population did not appreciate the tsar's initiative, and these educational institutions remained almost empty. By the beginning of the reign of Catherine II, numeral schools had already ceased to exist.

During the reign of Peter the Great's daughter, Elizabeth, her favorite, Ivan Shuvalov, put forward significant educational initiatives. As patron of Mikhail Lomonosov, he played a key role in the founding of Moscow University and developed a project to create gymnasiums in large cities, as well as elementary schools in small towns. Shuvalov even held discussions with the Academy of Sciences about the content of the school curriculum, but after Elizabeth's death, his ambitious plans remained unfulfilled. These initiatives were aimed at developing education in Russia and left a noticeable mark on the history of Russian science and culture.

By the beginning of the reign of Catherine II, there was no unified system of school education in the Russian Empire. Although schools, mainly church schools, already existed, one could also find the first gymnasiums in Moscow and Kazan, as well as boarding schools with tuition, opened by foreigners. However, all this did not constitute a coherent educational structure. The educational process was chaotic: there were no clear programs, schedules, or methodological approaches. The only exception was Magnitsky's "Arithmetic", published under Peter I. Students were not divided into age groups, which also testified to the insufficient organization of the educational process.

Children of representatives of the wealthy classes, as a rule, were taught by home tutors. However, the success of such classes was not always guaranteed, since at that time there were no specialized educational institutions for training teachers. Teachers were often hired by foreigners, who did not always possess the necessary knowledge and qualifications. This created certain difficulties in the educational process and affected the level of education of these children.

The effectiveness of such teaching was low. Andrei Bolotov, a nobleman, scholar, encyclopedist, agronomist, and writer, who was only 25 years old at the beginning of the reign of Catherine the Great, noted in his memoirs that even among wealthy people, most possessed very limited knowledge. During his childhood, he was tutored by a German non-commissioned officer who had come to Russia for military service. This "educator" had a strict character, but he knew how to read, write, and basic arithmetic—this was enough for Bolotov's father to hire him to teach his son. Such conditions shaped the concept of education at the time, emphasizing the need for a high-quality pedagogical approach to achieving deep knowledge.

Catherine the Great showed a deep interest in enlightenment and education. In 1768, six years after ascending the throne, she established the "Private Commission on Schools and Charity." This commission drafted a law on school education and, by 1770–1771, presented plans for lower village and city schools, as well as educational institutions for non-believers. However, the implementation of these plans, as with the digital schools founded by Peter the Great, encountered difficulties at the initial stage. The country lacked authorities capable of establishing local schools, which hindered the development of the educational system. However, in 1775, Public Charity Orders began operating in each province, assuming control of schools, hospitals, shelters, almshouses, and prisons. As a result, public schools were opened in a number of cities. However, the Empress realized that this was only a temporary solution and was not satisfied with the current situation. She sought to create educational institutions where instruction would be conducted using a well-thought-out and systematic methodology, based on clear methodological principles.

Empress Catherine II was looking for successful examples of organizing comprehensive schools that could be adapted for Russia. In this regard, her attention was drawn to the Austrian experience in the field of education.

How a Serb, Theodore de Mirievo, Became an Expert on Educational Reforms

Theodore Janković belonged to a noble family that was forced to leave their native lands in the 15th century as a result of the conquest of the Balkans by the Ottoman Turks. As a result, Theodore was born in the city of Sremsk Kamenica, located in Hungary. He received an excellent education, starting at the gymnasium and the Slavic-Latin school, and then continued his studies at the University of Vienna. As part of his educational program, which corresponded to the standards of European universities of the time, he studied a wide range of disciplines, including mathematics, natural sciences, philosophy, law, economics, and pedagogy. This diversity of knowledge contributed to the formation of his intellect and prepared him for his future work.

Janković was appointed secretary to the bishop of Temeswar Banat, which was part of the Habsburg province in modern-day Romania. The region was inhabited mainly by Orthodox Serbs. In 1773, Janković was appointed supreme director of Orthodox schools in this bishopric, which testifies to his significant influence on the education and cultural development of Serbs in Banat.

During the reign of Empress Maria Theresa, the need for qualified personnel arose, which became the basis for a large-scale school reform. This reform was aimed at strengthening the multinational empire through the creation of a unified educational system. Maria Theresa sought to introduce state schools with a uniform curriculum and standard textbooks. The reform was based on the methodology of Abbot Johann Felbiger, which included coeducation of boys and girls, classroom lessons, and the active use of questions and answers. Particular attention was paid to visual aids, including tables, which facilitated more effective assimilation of the material. Thus, Maria Theresa's reform marked the beginning of a modern educational process focused on developing the skills and knowledge of the younger generation.

Felbiger implemented his methodology in educational institutions in Silesia—a historical region that today encompasses Poland, the Czech Republic, and Germany, but was then under the rule of the Prussian king. At the initiative of Maria Theresa, King Frederick II sent Felbiger to Vienna, where he led a pan-Austrian educational reform. This reform envisioned the creation of hundreds of new schools in every locality, which would provide instruction in literacy, numeracy, religion, and the basics of home economics and agriculture. All children between the ages of six and nine were required to attend school year-round, while older students were required to attend school only in the winter.

Teodor Janković was introduced to Felbiger's system while still at university and became one of the first to introduce new educational institutions to the Serbian population. Under his leadership, almost every Serbian community in the region received its own school, significantly improving access to education. An experienced philologist and passionate educator, Janković not only translated but also adapted important educational materials for Serbs and Romanians, such as Felbiger's "Methodology," "Azbuchna Dshchica," and "School Laws for Students," as well as the works of renowned thinkers, including Wolfgang Rathke, Jan Amos Komenský, and Jean-Jacques Rousseau. For his achievements in the field of education, Janković was awarded the noble title of "de Mirievo" by Maria Theresa in 1774, which testifies to his significant contribution to the development of education in Serbia.

Theodore, who arrived in Russia, established himself as a successful organizer of school education, especially among the Orthodox population, which played an important role in the country's educational reforms. His knowledge of Russian also contributed to his effectiveness. Dmitry Golitsyn, the ambassador to Vienna, described Theodore to Catherine II, noting his high reputation: "This director received many recommendations from the Hungarian Chancellor, Count Esterhazy, not only due to the excellent opinion that His Majesty the Emperor has of him."

How Theodore Jankovic Got Down to Business in Russia

The day after Theodore Jankovic's arrival in St. Petersburg, a meeting with Catherine II took place. On September 7, 1782, the Empress established the Commission for the Establishment of Public Schools. The commission's main task was to organize a network of educational institutions, train teachers, and develop curricula and textbooks. Jankovich, although he served as an expert on the commission, actually carried out virtually all of its work. However, he was not officially a member of the commission during Catherine's lifetime; this happened later. The commission was headed by Senator Pyotr Vasilyevich Zavadovsky, who had previously been a favorite of the empress and subsequently became Minister of Public Education when that ministry was established under Catherine's grandson, Alexander I. On September 21, the commission presented Jankovich's "Plan for the Establishment of Public Schools in the Russian Empire." This plan proposed establishing a network of small, medium, and main public schools in every city in the country. However, the proposed structure did not correspond to the Austrian three-tier system. Schools at different levels differed only in the level of instruction, without providing teacher training. Thus, Jankovic merely outlined the methodological principles for the future education system, without determining its final structure.

The Empress approved the first part of the curriculum, while the economic and political sections were still under development, and a special commission, not Jankovic, was in charge of their study. Catherine made changes to the curriculum, including the decision to leave the teaching of French to parents' discretion, not including it in the curriculum of public schools.

French was the language of the aristocracy in the 18th century, and Catherine II deemed it unnecessary for ordinary citizens. More practical languages, such as German and other foreign languages, were included in the curriculum. For example, Greek was studied in the Novorossiysk province, since the Greeks played an important role in settling it after the fall of the Crimean Khanate. In the Kazan province, emphasis was placed on Tatar and Arabic, which were associated with Islam. In the Kolyvan region, located on the border with China, Chinese was studied.

The reform plan was first implemented in the St. Petersburg province. In 1783, the schools that Catherine II had ordered opened before the reform were transformed into small public schools, which corresponded to the concept of primary education. That same year, the Main Public School was founded. To teach at it, Jankovic selected the most talented students from theological seminaries and the Slavic-Greek-Latin Academy and trained them for teaching. He also initiated the creation of a Teachers' Seminary at the Main Public School in St. Petersburg, which consisted of 100 students, also recruited from theological seminaries. This seminary later transformed into the Main Pedagogical Institute, which became an important center for teacher training in Russia. At its inception, the Main Public School was headed by Jankovic, but he soon resigned in 1785 due to an excessive workload. From the moment of his arrival, Jankovic was actively involved in the development of educational materials. In 1782, he adapted Felbiger's "School Laws for Students" to Russian conditions, leading to the creation of the "Rules for Students in Public Schools." This step became an important contribution to the educational system of Russia.

That same year, Jankovic developed the "Russian ABC," which was subsequently reprinted 18 times, testifying to its importance in the educational system. He also created the curriculum for the Smolny Institute for Noble Maidens, highlighting his contribution to the development of female education in Russia. In 1783, Jankovic published the first teaching aid for teachers, "Guide for Teachers of the First and Second Grades of Public Schools of the Russian Empire," adapted from Serbian, which marked an important step in improving the quality of education in public schools. These works by Jankovic had a significant influence on the educational practices of their era and remain relevant today.

Theodore-Fyodor created a calligraphy guide, alphabet tables, a catechism, textbooks on sacred and world history, and manuals on the natural sciences. Under his supervision, geographical maps, globes, and atlases were developed. He was also involved in writing prefaces, instructions, and manuals. At the request of the Commission, he drafted a plan for a textbook on Russian history. In total, the tireless Serb published over 70 school textbooks and manuals, ten of which are his own teaching aids. This work contributed to the educational process, enriching educational materials and improving their quality. Theodore Janković's pedagogical works express his concept in simple and accessible language. He formulated strict requirements for educators: the ideal teacher must be a peace-loving and decent Christian, with a sincere love for children. Such a teacher must possess vigor of spirit and body, patience, diligence, and fairness. They inspire both love and respect in students, as well as a fear of authority. In their professional work, teachers are obliged to strictly adhere to the established curriculum, have a thorough understanding of the material being taught, and, when in doubt, refer to the textbook. Thus, Jankovic emphasizes the importance of high moral and professional standards in pedagogy. Jankovic emphasizes that students must demonstrate complete respect and unquestioning obedience both in the educational process and in everyday life. He argues that a student's disobedience in youth can lead to a refusal to obey civil authority in the future. It is the responsibility of every student to memorize the creeds, prayers, and the Ten Commandments. An important aspect of learning is the ability to answer the teacher's questions in detail, rather than simply answering "yes" or "no." Such requirements shape not only the spiritual but also the moral foundations of the individual, promoting respect for authority and social responsibility.

Jankovic incorporated visual aids into the teaching process, such as mineral collections, herbariums, and specialized equipment for physics labs. He also used the question-and-answer method, which encouraged active student engagement. Furthermore, Jankovic employed an effective technique for improving retention of new information: he wrote the content on the board, then erased the words, leaving only the first letters as a reminder. At the end of the lesson, he erased these as well, prompting the students to recall what had been discussed. This approach not only activated memory, but also contributed to a deeper assimilation of the material.

Theodore Jankovic played a key role in introducing such commonplace phenomena as the class-lesson system, the curriculum, the class register, and the tradition of raising one's hand into Russian schools. These elements of the educational process were partially borrowed from the ideas of Jan Amos Comenius, outlined in his 17th-century work "The Great Didactics." The introduction of these practices contributed to the streamlining of the educational process and improved the organization of learning, which made education more accessible and effective.

If a student wants to speak or leave their seat, they must raise their hand in advance and wait for the teacher's permission. Speaking without permission is not permitted, according to the "Teacher's Guide." Under Jankovic, a new alphabet was introduced, replacing the old one with "az," "buki," and "vedi." For teaching children, they began to use the familiar letters "a," "b," and "v" of the civil press, rather than Church Slavonic. This significantly simplified the process of literacy training, although effective methods were still far from being achieved. These innovations in the educational system contributed to improved learning and increased children's interest in learning. Jankovic strongly opposed corporal punishment and emphasized the importance of educating children through exhortations, warnings, and threats. He proposed measures such as depriving children of pleasant things or "shaming," which correlated with the child's misdeeds. Jankovic also emphasized that lagging children should not be shamed, but rather given additional attention and activities. He called for an individual approach to each child, taking into account their character and needs. Theodore's ideas of humanistic pedagogy were significantly ahead of his time, situated in the context of the late 18th century. In that era, physical punishment of children, including the use of rods, was perceived as a daily practice both in families and in educational institutions. These concepts of humane treatment of children and the need to respect their individuality could not be perceived by a wide audience, which underscores the significance and relevance of his views in the modern educational process.

What network of schools was organized

The opening of the Teachers' Seminary and the formation of the initial educational and methodological base contributed to the creation of several small children's schools in other cities, similar to those that functioned in St. Petersburg. In August 1786, the Empress approved the decree "On the opening of public schools", prepared by Jan Jankovich. This decree became the basis for the creation of a two-tier system of free comprehensive schools, where both boys and girls were educated. This system included district (small) and main public schools, which significantly expanded access to education for children. Small public schools were opened in district and provincial towns, providing primary education. At these educational institutions, children spent two years learning reading, writing, the basics of arithmetic and grammar, and were also introduced to numbers, church numerals, and Roman numerals. The curriculum included catechism, sacred history, calligraphy, and drawing, as well as the study of moral values ​​and civic responsibilities. The book developed by Yankovich for this subject was edited by Catherine II and went through 11 Russian editions. Thus, small public schools played an important role in shaping the basic level of education in Russia. Main public schools were established in each provincial town; these were secondary schools where students completed a four-grade curriculum over five years. The first two grades followed the curriculum of small schools, while in the upper grades, students studied subjects such as arithmetic, geometry, physics and mechanics, natural history, architecture with plan drawing, geography, and history. From the first grades, these schools also taught Latin and a modern foreign language, most often German. These public schools played a key role in the education and development of young people, providing a comprehensive formation of knowledge and skills necessary for further education and professional activity.

The St. Petersburg Teachers' Seminary was conceived as a model for similar educational institutions in the regions, but remained the only one. The number of teachers trained by this seminary was clearly insufficient for the successful implementation of large-scale educational reform in such a vast country as Russia. Additional educational institutions were needed that could train qualified personnel and provide access to quality education in various parts of the country.

The Educational Commission planned to close the school when all the main public schools in the country were staffed with teachers. However, no one considered the need to open additional educational institutions. The main schools could only train teachers for small schools and elementary grades. As a result, neither modern Greek nor oriental languages ​​​​were ever part of the educational process in public schools, since there were not enough qualified teachers to teach them.

After the completion of the key events of the 1786 reform, the commission practically ceased its activities. Jankovic, focused on methodological work, did not have significant administrative powers, as Felbiger had during the Austrian reform. This limited his ability to implement further changes and reduced the effectiveness of the reform process. Thus, the lack of active work of the commission and Jankovic's lack of authority became an obstacle to the successful implementation of reforms.

The importance of education was not well-established in society at that time. Parents believed that only two elementary grades were sufficient for children, and this was only because the ability to read and write was necessary to obtain a government position. Other subjects, as in the time of Peter the Great, were perceived as a useless pastime.

The emergence of public schools became the foundation of the education system in the Russian Empire. In 1802, almost 20 years after the opening of the first Main Public School in St. Petersburg, Emperor Alexander I, grandson of Catherine II, signed a decree establishing the Ministry of Public Education. Public schools remained the most common type of public school until the Revolution. Small public schools were transformed into district schools, while the main schools became gymnasiums. This reform played a key role in the development of the country's educational system, providing access to knowledge for the general population.

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Pre-revolutionary Russia had a unique education system in which schools played an important role. Let's consider 10 interesting facts about the schools of that time. First, primary school education was not accessible to everyone, and a significant portion of children remained without an education. Second, most educational institutions were under the control of the church, which determined the content of the curriculum. Third, Russia had various types of schools, including district, city, and parish schools, each with its own characteristics. Fourth, teachers were often poorly paid, making it difficult to attract qualified specialists. Fifth, many schools used the "rewrite" method, which limited the development of critical thinking in students. Sixth, primary schools emphasized religious education, reflecting the social values ​​of the time. Seventh, some regions operated schools for girls, a novelty for the time. Eighth, efforts to reform the education system began in the late 19th century, which laid the foundation for future changes. Ninth, literature and language were important subjects that shaped the cultural consciousness of young people. Tenth, schools became centers of social life, where not only lessons were held, but also various events promoting the socialization of children. These facts emphasize the complex and multifaceted nature of education in pre-revolutionary Russia.

How the life of Theodore Jankovich, or Fyodor Ivanovich, developed further

De Mirievo spent his entire life in Russia. Contemporaries noted his outstanding qualities: straightforwardness combined with modesty, extraordinary accuracy, impeccability, honesty, and strict piety, free from religious intolerance. These characteristics make his personality and work significant in the context of Russian history.

Fyodor Ivanovich Jankovich did not limit himself to working in schools. In 1783, he was elected a member of the Russian Academy of Sciences, where he actively participated in the creation of a comparative dictionary of all languages. In 1797, Jankovic was officially appointed to the Commission on Public Schools. After the establishment of the Ministry of Public Education, he participated in the development of university charters and led the drafting of charters for gymnasiums and district schools. Despite his significant contributions, Fyodor Ivanovich's influence within the ministry was limited. Two years later, he left the service, citing excessive workload, which had exhausted his mental and physical strength. He attained the civilian rank of Actual State Councilor, equivalent to the rank of major general in the army. He was addressed as "Your Excellency." For his achievements, Jankovic was awarded the Order of St. Vladimir, fourth and third degrees, and also received hereditary nobility, which was passed on by inheritance. He also owned estates and plots in the Mogilev and Grodno provinces.

Fyodor Ivanovich survived Napoleon's invasion, and his son Ivan, having had a successful military career, achieved the rank of general and distinguished himself in the Battle of Austerlitz. Having died in 1814, the elder de Mirievo was buried with honors in the cemetery of the Alexander Nevsky Lavra. This story highlights not only the family's military achievements, but also their significance in Russian history, especially in the context of the Napoleonic Wars.