How the Young USSR Addressed the Teacher Shortage

Contents:

• Why there was a teacher shortage
• How the school tried to "mobilize" almost everyone
• Did courses and distance learning help cope with the teacher shortage?

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• how, having announced a course on universal primary education and the elimination of illiteracy, the new government faced a shortage of teachers;
• why, in the conditions of a teacher shortage, they did not blow the dust off them, but, on the contrary, organized a purge in their ranks;
• how they began to literally mobilize almost everyone in a row to become school teachers;
• how teachers were trained in courses for a couple of months and in the correspondence departments of universities;
• who guessed that without a salary increase and a decrease in social workload it is impossible to attract people to the profession.

Why there was a shortage of teachers

In pre-revolutionary Russia, primary school education did not become compulsory and universal, despite numerous discussions of this idea. The primary reason for this phenomenon was the lack of financial resources in the state treasury to implement such large-scale reforms. With the advent of the Bolsheviks, the goal of introducing comprehensive compulsory education was declared before the revolution. This initiative was intended not only to reduce class inequality but also to cultivate active supporters of the new regime and prepare competent specialists for the upcoming industrialization. Thus, education became an important tool for shaping a society capable of effective development and modernization.

In 1918, the Bolsheviks issued a decree on a unified labor school, which proclaimed free education and compulsory attendance at the first and second levels for all school-age children. However, the new government soon faced the same problem as its predecessors, but in the context of a devastated economy and on an even more severe level: the state lacked sufficient funds to provide free education. As a result, tuition fees were reintroduced in 1923, and it was only in 1956 that they were completely abolished.

Education has become an important task for both children and adults, since a significant part A significant portion of the population could not read or write—according to various sources, the literacy rate was only 30 to 40%. In 1919, the Council of People's Commissars of the RSFSR adopted a decree "On the Elimination of Illiteracy," requiring all illiterate citizens between the ages of 8 and 50 to learn to read and write. Instruction was provided in the student's native language or Russian, depending on their preference. Classes were held both in existing public schools and in new educational institutions created at the initiative of the People's Commissariat of Education (Narkompros). To support students, their workday was shortened by two hours, while their salaries were maintained. This initiative contributed to an increase in literacy in the country and an improvement in the quality of life for citizens. Grandiose plans to increase the number of students required a corresponding increase in the number of teachers. However, finding qualified specialists was extremely difficult, as literate people constituted only a minority in the country. In 1917, only 135,000 students were enrolled in higher education institutions out of a population of approximately 167 million. By the early 1920s, the situation had hardly improved: many educated people had died on the front lines of World War I, others had fallen victim to the Civil War, emigrated, or perished from hunger and disease during difficult times. The country was desperately short of personnel, financial resources, and the necessary materials to implement such large-scale educational projects—from textbooks to fuel to heat cold classrooms.

The Decree "On the Elimination of Illiteracy" granted the People's Commissariat of Education and its local bodies the opportunity to recruit able-bodied, literate citizens not conscripted into the army to teach illiterate citizens. Remuneration was determined according to the standards for educators. In 1920, the Council of People's Commissars established the All-Russian Extraordinary Commission for the Elimination of Illiteracy (likbez), which was overseen by the People's Commissariat of Education. The main goal of the commission was not only to create literacy courses, but also to train qualified teachers for these courses. This initiative played a significant role in increasing literacy in the country and contributed to the development of the educational system.

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Big Break on Zarechnaya Street: Adult Education in Soviet Schools

The Soviet education system is known for its unique features, and adult education on Zarechnaya Street was no exception. During this period, many adults were able to continue their education within the walls of schools, which gave them the opportunity to acquire new knowledge and skills. The curriculum was adapted for an adult audience, creating a unique atmosphere in the classrooms.

Adult students came to school with a wealth of life experience, which enriched discussions and made classes more dynamic. Teachers used a variety of methods to make the learning process as effective and engaging as possible. This allowed not only the acquisition of theoretical knowledge but also its practical application.

Adult education on Zarechnaya Street became an important step toward self-development and professional growth. Participation in such classes helped people improve their skills and adapt to changes in society. Thus, Soviet schools became not only a place for basic education but also a center for lifelong learning for adults.

Implementing plans to introduce universal education proved to be a significantly more complex task than initially anticipated. Although work was underway, it became clear that achieving the goals would not be quick. In 1923, the Council of People's Commissars began developing a plan for universal education, but it was not until 1930 that the Central Executive Committee and the Council of People's Commissars of the USSR approved the decree "On Universal Compulsory Primary Education." This document emphasized that "the preparation and implementation of universal primary education had so far proceeded at an unsatisfactory pace," and also reintroduced compulsory education for children of both sexes aged 8 to 15, providing for a four-year primary school course. Thus, after the adoption of the first decree in 1918, universal and compulsory schooling was never actually implemented.

In this situation, professional teachers should be protected and supported to avoid losing the existing staff. However, in practice, the opposite situation is observed.

Many teachers of that time were educated in Tsarist Russia, and not all of them enthusiastically embraced the October Revolution and its aftermath. The authorities expressed concerns that such teachers could become proponents of ideologies contrary to Marxism.

In 1922, the USSR underwent its first "purge" of teachers, during which those deemed unreliable were dismissed from educational institutions. This process was carried out through "verification committees"—specialized expert commissions operating within the departments of public education. School principals were required to provide these committees with detailed reports, including completed questionnaires, biographies, and character references for each teacher, as well as reports on their work completed during the year. This practice had a significant impact on the educational process and the composition of the teaching staff in the country.

Following this, there were three more waves of "purges" in the educational system. In 1928, dismissals and transfers affected 45% of teachers. Many of them, without waiting their turn, left the teaching profession themselves. The reasons for this were low salaries, which were often delayed, as well as significant socio-political pressure. Teachers had to teach classes at enterprises, fight idleness and alcoholism, and in villages they were often recruited for collective farm work. These factors contributed to a decline in interest in teaching and a deterioration in the quality of education.

In 1930-1931, the RSFSR experienced a shortage of educational institutions for teacher training. Professional pedagogical institutions provided only 30% of the required number of new primary school teachers, and universities trained only 27.7% of teachers for grades 5-7. The situation was exacerbated by incorrect forecasts: instead of the expected 613,500 students, 693,000 sat at school desks in 1930. This discrepancy between the number of students and the number of trained personnel significantly complicated the educational process in the country.

How they tried to "mobilize" almost everyone in school

The accelerated spread of universal literacy required prompt and decisive action, and these tasks began to be achieved through "voluntary-compulsory" methods. The 1930 decree "On Universal Compulsory Primary Education" outlined a number of measures to eliminate the teacher shortage. One of these measures was the return of teachers who had previously worked outside their specialty to schools, as well as the recruitment of students. This has made it possible to rapidly increase the number of qualified personnel and ensure access to education for all segments of the population.

To provide schools providing universal primary education with qualified teaching staff in accordance with plans for the implementation of universal education, it is necessary to instruct the governments of the union republics to implement a number of measures. These actions should include training and retraining teachers, improving working conditions, and increasing the social attractiveness of the profession. It is also important to create effective mechanisms for attracting young specialists to schools, which will contribute to improving the quality of the educational process and achieving the goals of universal education.

There is an urgent need to expand the network of pedagogical institutes and technical schools, as well as to introduce specialized pedagogical courses. It is important to increase the number of students in these educational institutions and consider the introduction of various forms of teacher training to improve the quality of education.

It is necessary to develop strategies for attracting teachers who are currently working in areas outside their specialty to teaching. This will not only improve the qualifications of teachers but also diversify the educational process. It is important to create conditions that facilitate the transition of specialists from other fields into education, which can lead to improved quality of education and increased student interest. Engaging students from pedagogical educational institutions in universal training through internships is a key task. This contributes not only to the professional development of future teachers but also to the improvement of the educational process. Student participation in practical activities allows them to gain real-world experience and contribute to the development of the educational environment. Such initiatives help strengthen the relationship between educational institutions and educational institutions, which in turn contributes to improving the level of education. Specialized teams have been formed in the Urals to recruit students for pedagogical technical schools and higher education institutions. Courses have also been organized at seven-year schools to prepare students for admission to pedagogical secondary educational institutions. These initiatives are aimed at improving the quality of teaching staff and meeting the need for qualified personnel in the education sector.

In September 1930, the Council of People's Commissars of the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic (Sovnarkom RSFSR) adopted a resolution mandating the assignment to schools of specialists who had previously graduated from pedagogical educational institutions and had at least one year of teaching experience. This decision applied to those who were currently working in a field outside their specialty. Failure to comply with this regulation was subject to administrative penalties. This event became part of a broader policy aimed at improving the quality of education and restoring the teaching system in the country in the context of post-revolutionary changes.

The People's Commissariat of Education decided to recruit cultural army members to work with illiterate teenagers. In the early years of the USSR, cultural army members, representing the Komsomol, were engaged in the free dissemination of the new Soviet culture among the illiterate population. Their task was to help people shed old-regime habits and actively promote education. Thus, the cultural army members played an important role in shaping a new cultural environment in the country.

Cultural Army cells should be established at every club, library, school for children and adults, as well as at Pioneer detachments. These groups will actively engage illiterate and semi-literate people in cultural life, informing them about events on the international stage and what is happening in our country. Cultural Army members will help them get used to reading newspapers and books, and organize visits to cinemas, literary evenings, and theaters. It is also important to provide them with necessary materials: paper, pencils, and primers. They can help create a cultural atmosphere at home, organize homeschooling or small group learning, whichever is more convenient for the participants. In cities, it is worthwhile to organize crèches and children's corners, which will help relieve parents of household chores and create a comfortable environment for children.

An important way to replenish the teaching staff during the Soviet era was the promotion and mobilization of teachers by work collectives and public organizations. As a result, almost anyone could become a teacher. For example, in the Urals, only 49% of primary school teachers promoted to positions had an incomplete secondary education, while the rest had only a primary education. Sometimes, they were hired without any documents, based on recommendations such as, "He writes well, so he can be hired, but his qualifications and experience are hard to say." This highlights the unconventional and non-transparent nature of the teaching staff selection processes during this period, which could impact the quality of education. Teachers from the central region were sent on extended assignments, lasting from two to three years, to strengthen educational institutions in the provinces. Initially, such assignments were voluntary, but by 1932 they became mandatory. In addition, a system of mandatory assignment of graduates of pedagogical universities to work in remote regions where there was an acute teacher shortage was introduced. This initiative contributed to improving the quality of education in less developed areas by providing necessary support and resources to local schools.

In conditions of an acute shortage of qualified specialists in the field of education, there is a need in effective solutions. One such solution was the introduction of short-term teacher training courses, which allow for the quick and high-quality training of new specialists. Additionally, correspondence teacher education is becoming an important tool for upgrading the qualifications of existing teachers and training new personnel. These approaches help to quickly respond to the needs of the education system and ensure a decent level of education.

Have the courses and correspondence education helped to cope with the teacher shortage?

Pedagogical courses became an important tool for the People's Commissariat of Education since 1918, which was a natural continuation of the traditions of pre-revolutionary Russia, where such courses already existed. However, after the revolution, the content of the programs for teachers underwent significant changes. In the 1920s, these courses primarily served to improve the qualifications of "old-regime" teachers, focusing on their political re-education. Participants were trained in actively expressing a communist position and were introduced to new approaches in Soviet schools, changes in curricula and teaching methods. Pedagogical courses became a key element in the formation of a new educational space, contributing to the implementation of Soviet ideals in the education system.

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The Bolsheviks implemented radical reforms in the education system, aimed at creating a new school that would meet the ideals of socialism. These changes included the introduction of compulsory education, the elimination of class differences, and an emphasis on practical learning. However, over time, the Bolsheviks began to tire of constant experimentation in the educational sphere. Constant changes in teaching methods and school management caused discontent among both teachers and parents, which led to the need to revise approaches to the educational system. Thus, the initial reforms aimed at creating a progressive and accessible school ultimately faced challenges requiring a more stable and sound approach to education.

Courses aimed at improving the qualifications of teachers covered only a small proportion of teachers, and the quality of training left much to be desired. Official reports characterized the training as ineffective and unsuccessful. The main reasons for this were the inadequate training of the methodologists responsible for the courses, as well as a lack of funding, which negatively impacted the implementation of educational programs.

Due to a shortage of teachers, specialized courses were opened to prepare teachers from scratch. These courses were created at pedagogical institutes and technical schools, and initially lasted from six months to a year. However, in 1930-1931, accelerated training programs were introduced, shortening the duration to three and even two months. Candidates for teaching positions, nominated by labor and community groups, were trained and began working in schools through these accelerated courses. Between 1931 and 1935, these courses prepared 148,000 new teachers for educational institutions.

Courses for training primary school teachers became the primary means of addressing the personnel shortage in this area. However, it is difficult not to notice that the quality of training of such specialists left much to be desired. During their short training period, often just a couple of months, many of these teachers had only a basic education, which negatively impacted their professional skills. As a result, many newly trained teachers not only failed to accurately assess their students' errors but also wrote with grammatical errors themselves. This underscores the need for a more thorough approach to teacher training to ensure a high level of education for children. Beginning in 1932, the People's Commissariat of Education began gradually eliminating these courses, replacing them with correspondence courses at pedagogical universities and technical schools. This decision was made to improve the effectiveness of the educational process. Correspondence students received a number of benefits, including additional paid leave days for summer camps, winter exams, and academic consultations. They also had their mandatory community service workload reduced, which contributed to a better understanding of the curriculum and improved learning conditions.

Correspondence education had its drawbacks. The organization of exam sessions and independent work left much to be desired. Textbooks were insufficient, and teaching materials were virtually nonexistent. Despite the accommodations provided, students complained of a lack of time to fully study the material.

Many students lacked basic knowledge, which negatively impacted their studies. In 1935, in order to meet established plans, admissions committees at pedagogical technical schools accepted 67% of applicants who had failed the entrance exams. Attempts to improve the situation through preparatory courses, introduced at technical schools in 1931, did not produce the expected results. As a result, students demonstrated low academic performance and frequently dropped out. For example, in 1934, 31.8% of correspondence students at 46 pedagogical institutes in the RSFSR were expelled, and the graduation rate was only 1.2%. This highlights the serious problems in the education system of that time, which required urgent solutions to improve the quality of education and student success.

After completing our first year, we were transferred to Ostyako-Vogulsk for study. In August, after the holidays, only four students returned to the pedagogical technical school for their second year. Due to the small number of students, the second year was not opened. The director of the technical school, S. F. Petov, referred us to the district department of public education, which enrolled us in a six-month teacher training course in Samarovo. We arrived for the course with only three months of study remaining and completed our training in December. Thus, at the age of 17, we became teachers, recalled I. Kaskin, who was enrolled in the first year of the Tobolsk Pedagogical Technical School in 1931.

The departure of primary school teachers for exam sessions and courses, which were quite common among educators, negatively impacted the educational process. Frequent absences of specialists led to disruptions in students' education, forcing principals to temporarily suspend classes. This created additional difficulties for both students and school administrators. The need for teachers to combine work and study emphasizes the importance of finding effective solutions that will help minimize the impact of such situations on the educational process.

In 1936, a special commission was created under the Government of the RSFSR to develop a plan for training teachers for new educational institutions—teacher institutes. These institutes began to open at universities, on the premises of non-pedagogical higher education institutions, and were also transformed from workers' faculties and pedagogical technical schools. Teacher institutes offered incomplete higher education. In addition, teacher training was permitted to be organized at universities not subordinate to the People's Commissariat of Education, including technical institutions. This contributed to the expansion of opportunities for teacher education and an increase in the number of qualified specialists in the field of education.

Andrei Bubnov, who held the post of People's Commissar of Education from 1929 to 1937, understood that attracting specialists to the teaching profession required not only education, but also improved working conditions. Many teachers left their positions due to low salaries and excessive public workload. In 1936, Bubnov succeeded in increasing teachers' salaries by 10-25%. Although this increase was insignificant and problems with payment delays persisted, 13,000 previously resigned teachers returned to schools. Furthermore, Bubnov took steps to reduce the public workload on teachers. These measures contributed to an improvement in the educational situation and had a positive impact on the stability of the school staff.

In the two decades following the 1917 Revolution, Russia saw a significant increase in the number of teachers in general education schools. From 1917 to 1939, the number of teachers more than tripled compared to the pre-war period. Despite the fact that many of the new teachers were insufficiently qualified and educational institutions experienced high turnover, they became the foundation for the education of the first Soviet generation. According to the 1939 census, 90% of citizens aged 16 to 50 were literate, demonstrating positive changes in the education system of that time. Primary sources of information play a key role in developing knowledge and understanding of various topics. In today's world, access to information has become easier thanks to the internet, but it is important to be able to distinguish reliable sources from unreliable ones. Primary sources include scientific publications, books, articles in reputable journals, and educational platforms. When searching for information, pay attention to the publication date, the author's authority, and whether the materials have been peer-reviewed. It is also helpful to use specialized databases and libraries that provide access to verified and up-to-date data. The correct choice of sources contributes to a deeper understanding of the subject and the formation of high-quality content.

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