Pedagogical Models: What They Are and How They Are Used in Schools

Contents:

• Outcome-oriented model
• Problem-oriented model
• Experience-oriented model
• Inquiry-based learning

Results-Oriented Model

• Built around defining specific learning outcomes.
• Most often used to prepare for exams or qualification tests.
• It has a rigid structure based on what students need to be prepared for.

This is the traditional model that underlies the design of education in a general education school. At the center of this model is the achievement of specific educational outcomes, which are often not determined by the teacher themselves. In Russia, the results that schoolchildren must achieve are formulated in federal educational programs in accordance with federal state educational standards (FSES). Based on the Federal State Educational Standard (FSES), codifiers for the Basic State Examination (BSE) and the Unified State Examination (USE) are developed annually, containing requirements for the knowledge and skills of graduates. These requirements are verified during the state final assessment, emphasizing the importance of a formalized approach to assessing students' educational achievements.

This pedagogical model forms the basis of most national educational standards, as it is effectively adapted to the widespread classroom-lesson system. This model is most convenient for achieving clearly described educational outcomes, which makes it the optimal tool for implementing the educational process.

The pedagogical model used in TOEFL and IELTS preparation is also applied to international university entrance exams. Examples include the Cambridge A-Level programs and the International Baccalaureate Diploma Programme (IB DP). This model is applied to all educational processes where specific outcomes must be achieved. This also applies to adult learning, including online courses for professional preparation and corporate training. In such cases, designing educational programs around outcomes becomes a key element of success.

When preparing for exams and other tests, the outcome-based learning model proves most effective for most students. A key feature of this model is a strict structure based on pre-established learning outcomes. At first glance, teachers have a certain freedom within this structure: they can independently develop the sequence of lessons and choose a variety of strategies and methods. However, this freedom has its limitations. For example, the school curriculum must be completed within a set timeframe, making the use of time-consuming methods such as problem-based or inquiry-based learning inappropriate. Therefore, it is important to find a balance between adherence to the curriculum and the use of effective teaching methods that promote student success.

The outcome-oriented education model positions students as objects of pedagogical influence, rather than as active subjects who make decisions and are responsible for their own learning. Educational outcomes frame the learning process, and teachers develop a clear path to achieving goals, determining what, when, and how to study. As a result, students are given limited opportunities to demonstrate agency and independence in the educational process.

The outcome-oriented model is an approach focused on achieving specific results and goals. The primary emphasis is on measuring effectiveness and achieving desired indicators. This model allows for the optimization of processes, improvement of productivity, and increased customer satisfaction.

The key features of the results-oriented model are clearly defined goals, regular progress monitoring, and the use of analytical tools to evaluate the results achieved. This approach promotes more efficient resource allocation and improves overall competitiveness.

The implementation of a results-oriented model can significantly improve strategic planning and increase an organization's adaptability to changing market conditions. This makes it relevant for businesses in the modern economy, where not only efficiency is important, but also the ability to quickly respond to challenges.

Problem-oriented model

• Students independently acquire knowledge and develop skills through activity - by solving problems.
• Learning is closely linked to practice and life experience.

The key feature of this model is that the educational process is built around a variety of real-world problems and tasks that students solve. These tasks are interdisciplinary in nature and aim to enable students to acquire essential competencies through active learning. This approach promotes a deeper understanding of the subject matter and develops skills in demand in the modern world. Students don't just learn; they apply their knowledge in practice, making learning more effective and relevant.

The problem-based learning model promotes the development of universal competencies such as critical, creative, and dialectical thinking aimed at resolving contradictions. As educator and Russian Academy of Education member Isaac Lerner noted in his 1981 book, "Didactic Foundations of Teaching Methods," this approach allows students to progress through their education at their own pace. Learning motivation and engagement become key factors in this process, ensuring students' active participation in learning and promoting deeper assimilation of the material. The application of the problem-based learning model in the educational process creates conditions for the development of independent thinking and critical analysis, which is an important aspect of modern education.

There are several reasons why this learning model has not found widespread application in mainstream schools. Firstly, the learning process is flexible and nonlinear, which makes it difficult to monitor results and adjust the educational path in accordance with established standards. Students often work on complex tasks in teams, where they independently assign roles and responsibilities, which is not always effective. As a result, they do not always achieve expected results within the established deadlines, which is contrary to the requirements of the Federal State Educational Standards (FSES). This creates additional challenges for educators striving to provide a quality education. Education is becoming interdisciplinary and goes beyond the traditional classroom-lesson system, which strictly divides grades and subjects. This approach allows for the integration of knowledge from different fields, which promotes a deeper understanding and application of the material being studied. Interdisciplinary education better meets the demands of modern society and prepares specialists capable of adapting to a rapidly changing world.

Designing a learning experience based on this model requires significant time and resource investment. Organizing such a process is more complex than with a results-based approach, especially in the initial stages. Successful implementation requires a team of teachers who act as tutors, not just subject matter experts. This ensures deeper support and a personalized approach to each student, which ultimately promotes more effective learning.

After overcoming the initial stage, which can be costly, with proper scaling and organization, a problem-based education model can prove more cost-effective than a traditional results-based system. For this reason, some educational institutions are abandoning the classroom-based system in favor of a problem-based approach. A prime example of such institutions are schools operating under the Dalton Plan, developed by Helen Parkhurst at the turn of the 20th century. This pedagogical method was also used in the USSR as part of Bolshevik educational experiments as a laboratory-team approach. The use of such innovative teaching methods promotes the development of critical thinking and independence of students, which makes education more adaptive to modern requirements.

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Problem-based learning (PBL) is Problem-based learning is a method of the educational process in which students actively solve real-world problems. This approach promotes the development of critical thinking, analytical skills, and independent information retrieval. Instead of traditional memorization of facts, students are confronted with concrete situations that require the application of knowledge and skills in practice.

Within PBL, students work in groups, which allows them to exchange opinions and find solutions jointly. This learning format develops students' ability to work as a team and improves communication skills. Problem-based learning can be applied in various fields, including medicine, engineering, and the social sciences.

With PBL, students not only acquire theoretical knowledge but also learn to apply it to solve practical problems, which significantly improves their preparedness for professional work. The use of this method in educational institutions contributes to a deeper understanding of the material and the development of the necessary competencies for a successful career.

Project-based learning is part of the problem-based model. Project-based learning always creates a specific product, such as a design project, event, video, or website. In contrast, problem-based learning (PBL) may not always produce a tangible result. Project-based learning focuses on achieving specific goals and creating tangible outcomes, making it an effective tool for developing practical skills and critical thinking in students.

In my urban studies course at a middle school, I applied a PBL strategy. Students were tasked with addressing the problem of litter accumulation near the school fence. They analyzed the locations and frequency of litter, as well as its composition. It turned out that the main source of pollution was plastic bags blown toward the school by the wind.

With the help of their geography and physics teachers, the students learned to determine air movement and calculate the trajectory of litter bags. As a result, they were able to identify the source of the litter problem—a specific trash container. Based on this analysis, the team proposed installing trash collection nets near the container, which would help minimize bag scattering and improve the environmental situation in the area.

Designing problem-based learning requires more time and effort than an outcome-based approach. After formulating a problem, the teacher must identify the tasks students will face in solving it, as well as identify related issues and problems that may arise. These aspects influence the choice of skills and knowledge that students will master. Thus, successful problem-based learning depends on careful preparation and a thoughtful approach to shaping the learning process.

The teacher creates a set of learning materials and teaching strategies to provide students with the necessary information in a timely manner. It is important to involve other teachers in this process who teach related subjects that contribute to solving the complex problem. It is equally important to develop objective criteria for assessing final results, which will ensure transparency and fairness in assessing student knowledge and skills.

The process of designing problem-based learning is described in detail in models such as M. David Merrill's Pebble in the Pond and Jeroen van Marienboer's 4C/ID. These approaches help formulate effective teaching strategies focused on solving real-world problems. It is also important to pay attention to TRIZ pedagogy, which offers numerous books and resources containing valuable techniques and tools for implementing problem-based learning. Using these methods will help create a more engaged and productive educational environment.

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A well-known book on designing educational programs using the 4C/ID model has been published in Russian. This method allows for the effective organization of the learning process based on four key components: conceptual knowledge, practical skills, support, and assessment. This book will be a useful resource for educators, curriculum developers, and anyone interested in modern approaches to education. Studying the 4C/ID model will help create more structured and effective educational programs that meet the demands of the modern world.

The problem-based model is an approach that focuses on defining and solving specific problems. The main features of this model are the clear identification of problems, an analysis of their causes, and the development of effective strategies for their elimination. Unlike other models, the problem-based model emphasizes the practical application of theoretical knowledge to achieve real results.

A key element of this model is the active involvement of all stakeholders in the problem-solving process. This promotes a deeper understanding of the situation and allows for the generation of innovative ideas. The application of this model is especially relevant in areas that require an integrated approach to solving complex problems, such as business, education, and the social sciences.

Implementing the problem-based model requires flexibility and adaptability, as situations can change, and it is necessary to be prepared to adjust the strategy depending on new data. Thus, the problem-based model not only directs efforts towards solving current issues, but also promotes the development of critical thinking and teamwork skills.

Experience-Based Model

• Learning is based on the student's personal experience.
• The key principle is the student's subjectivity, that is, freedom of choice, independence, and responsibility for their decisions in the learning process.

The experience-based learning model emerged in the field of corporate training and is based on the principle that for the successful acquisition and application of knowledge, it is necessary to take into account the student's previous experience and their emotional needs. It is important to provide students with freedom in formulating goals and choosing the ways to achieve them. In this model, the student is at the center of the educational process, which determines the goals, results, content, methods, and forms of training. This approach promotes a deeper understanding of the material and increases student motivation, which makes the learning process more effective.

This model is not consistent with the classroom-lesson system, as the emphasis shifts from the group of students to the individual learner. The educational process centers on the individual student, who follows their own educational trajectory. This allows for the unique needs and interests of each student to be taken into account, significantly increasing the effectiveness of learning and promoting deeper knowledge acquisition.

This model rejects coercion in learning and emphasizes reflection, developmental feedback, collaboration, and the exchange of experiences. It promotes the creation of a supportive learning environment. The experience-based model is largely consistent with the principles of democratic education, as demonstrated in such well-known examples as Summerhill School and Janusz Korczak's Orphanage. These institutions illustrate the importance of respecting the individuality of students and their active participation in the educational process.

The design of experience-based learning focuses on the development of student agency. Several key aspects are important to achieving this goal. First, it is necessary to consider the individual interests and needs of students, which promotes deeper engagement in the learning process. Second, creating conditions for practical activity helps students apply their knowledge in real-life situations, which increases their motivation. Third, interaction with the environment and other participants in the educational process develops collaboration and communication skills. English: Finally, it is important to provide support and feedback, which allows students to consciously analyze their own experiences and develop critical thinking.

• student initiative;
• independent goal setting;
• opportunity to choose;
• clear rules (they serve as a framework for the educational process, within which the student freely makes a choice);
• the opportunity to learn from their mistakes;
• reflection;
• responsibility for the consequences of decisions made.

Various methods are used to help students move from a dependent role to the role of an active subject. One effective approach is the ARCS-V motivational design model proposed by John Keller. This model includes several key stages: first, it is necessary to attract the student's attention, then convince him of the importance of learning, maintain confidence in his own abilities, create conditions for satisfaction with the results achieved and, finally, motivate him to move from intentions to specific actions. This approach promotes deeper student engagement in the learning process and the development of student independence.

The SSDL design model, developed by Gerald Grow, offers a unique approach to learning consisting of four stages: dependence, interest, involvement, and self-direction. At each stage, the teacher's role changes—from an authoritative figure overseeing the learning process to a consultant who supports and guides the student in their needs and aspirations. This model fosters a deeper understanding of the educational process and helps students develop independence and initiative in their learning.

In discussions of experience-based learning and other student-centered models, it is important to distinguish between the concepts of personalization and individualization. Although these terms are often used interchangeably, they have key differences. Personalization of learning involves adapting the educational process to the needs and interests of a group of students, which allows for the creation of a more comfortable and effective learning environment. Individualization, in turn, focuses on the needs and characteristics of a specific student, providing them with a unique approach and support in their learning. Understanding these differences helps to better organize the educational process and increase its effectiveness.

• With individualization, the teacher designs the learning process for a specific student, choosing the most appropriate pace, methods, teaching aids, and so on.
• With personalization, the student builds the learning process themselves—showing initiative, independently formulating goals, and making choices.

Personalization is a key aspect of the experience-based learning model. Individualization, despite its versatility and application in various educational approaches, is most often found in the context of outcome-based learning. This is especially noticeable in the process of working with a tutor who helps students prepare for exams. This approach ensures that educational material is tailored to the specific needs and characteristics of the student, which in turn promotes more effective knowledge acquisition and improved learning outcomes.

One of the most well-known models for designing personalized learning is PCBL (personalized competency-based learning), developed by Robert Marzano and his team. Within the PCBL model, students are given the opportunity to independently choose subjects and levels of learning, and to assess their achievements against pre-established criteria. Progression to the next stage of learning occurs only after confirmation of complete mastery of the previous stage. The PCBL model is widely used in e-learning, where Learning Management Systems (LMS) allow the creation of individual educational trajectories, ensuring the flexibility and adaptability of the learning process.

Personalization using neural networks today seems like an unattainable task, however In just a year, the situation will change. Modern technologies are developing rapidly, and the implementation of a neural network approach to personalization will become a reality. This will allow companies to more accurately tailor their offers and services to individual user preferences, thereby improving the customer experience and increasing satisfaction. Neural networks are expected to play a key role in the creation of personalized content and recommendations in the near future.

Some Russian schools and universities use the Individual Educational Trajectories (IET) or Individual Curriculums (IUP) model. For example, high school students study compulsory subjects, choosing their level of difficulty (basic or advanced), and can also add elective courses to their curriculum. However, with the introduction of federal educational programs (FEP), the opportunities for personalizing educational paths in schools have significantly decreased, limiting the flexibility in choosing educational paths for students.

The experience-based learning model is an approach based on the real-world experience and practical activities of students. The focus is on actively engaging students in the learning process through hands-on assignments, projects, and real-world problem solving. This approach fosters a deeper understanding of the material and develops critical thinking.

The key features of this model are: an emphasis on the practical application of knowledge, interaction with real-world situations and problems, and the opportunity to apply acquired skills in the future. Experiential learning also encourages collaboration between students and teachers, creating a more dynamic and interactive learning environment.

The introduction of an experience-based model into the educational process allows us to better prepare students for the challenges of the modern world, developing the skills necessary for a successful career and personal growth.

Inquiry-Based Learning

• Learning begins with formulating a research question.
• Theoretical knowledge is formed on the basis of research in the real world.
• Adherence to the methodology of scientific research and the correct implementation of all its stages is important.

Inquiry-based learning is similar to problem-based learning, as both approaches are focused on solving a specific problem. However, in inquiry-based learning, the problem is always related to a scientific field and is formulated as a research question. Solving this problem requires completing the full research cycle, which includes data collection, analysis, and conclusions. In contrast, problem-based learning, even when it includes elements of inquiry, often uses a shortened cycle. The problem in this context is of an applied nature and does not always require in-depth scientific analysis. Thus, the key difference between these approaches lies in the level of scientific engagement and the depth of inquiry. Research questions cover a wide range of topics, including physical laws, natural phenomena, everyday situations, ecosystems, urban planning, local history, and the art of specific periods. These questions can serve as the basis for deep analysis and understanding of various aspects of our lives and the world around us. Let's look at some examples of research questions that can be asked within various disciplines.

• Biology: Why do tree leaves turn yellow in the fall?
• History: What role did economic factors play in the start of World War I?
• Math: What is the best route for a teacher to collect exam papers when desks are arranged in a checkerboard pattern?

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Why is the sea polluted? Phenomenon-based learning as a way to solve real-world problems

Pollution of the seas and oceans has become one of the most serious environmental problems of our time. Understanding the causes of this phenomenon requires not only deep knowledge but also a practical approach to learning. Phenomenon-based learning, which focuses on the study of real-world situations and problems, allows students to master the material more effectively and develop critical thinking.

This approach includes the analysis of specific cases of pollution, its sources and consequences. Students can explore how human activities, such as industrial production, agriculture, and illegal waste disposal, affect the state of water bodies. They study methods of cleaning and restoring ecosystems, as well as the role of each individual in keeping the seas clean.

Phenomena-based learning helps not only understand the causes of pollution but also develop strategies for its prevention. This may include developing responsible consumption habits, participating in environmental campaigns, and introducing innovative technologies for cleaning water bodies. Thus, this educational method not only promotes awareness but also fosters active citizenship among young people, which can ultimately lead to an improvement in the health of the marine ecosystem. Students have the opportunity to work on research questions individually, in groups of varying sizes, or as a whole class. This research model, unlike problem-based and experience-based approaches, integrates seamlessly into the classroom. Research can be conducted within the context of individual subjects, allowing for a deeper understanding of the material and the development of students' analytical skills. This model promotes greater student engagement in the learning process and the development of critical thinking. Inquiry-based learning is actively being introduced into school education, which explains its popularity. It is the foundation of the International Baccalaureate Years' Programme (IB MYP). Research-based learning experiences and the necessary competencies are mentioned in the Federal State Educational Standards (FSES) for basic and secondary general education. For high school students, these competencies are included in the requirements for educational outcomes, both meta-subject and subject-specific, particularly in the natural sciences. This underscores the importance of research methods in developing students' skills for successful learning and future professional development. Designing inquiry-based learning presents a challenging task for teachers, similar to the problem-based model. The key is helping students formulate the right research question appropriate to their age and level of preparation. It is important that the question be accessible for study within the curriculum, so that, for example, eighth-graders do not choose topics that require in-depth scientific knowledge. Next, carefully consider which materials and resources will support students in constructing and testing hypotheses. It is also necessary to identify tools for conducting experiments, if the research involves them, and provide students with everything they need for successful work. Including training in the skills necessary for research work is an important aspect of the educational process. The key is to ensure that students seeking answers to research questions master the necessary subject content. School programs that are entirely focused on research may lose the breadth of knowledge, as some topics do not always fit into this format. However, research contributes to a deep understanding of the material and helps develop both subject-specific and meta-subject skills. Therefore, it is important to find a balance between an inquiry-based approach and the acquisition of a broad range of knowledge. Based on the concepts of Joseph Schwab and Marshall Herron, the founders of the inquiry-based approach to education, four types of research are distinguished. These types vary in the amount of information the teacher provides to students and the level of teacher intervention in the research process. Understanding these types of research allows teachers to more effectively organize the learning process and develop research skills in students. Each type of research has its own characteristics that affect the degree of student activity and independence, which contributes to a deeper acquisition of knowledge and the development of critical thinking. Confirmatory research: Students are presented with a research question, and the research method and even its result are also known. The students' task is to confirm this result in practice and hone their skills. This type of research is usually used as an element of formative assessment. Laboratory work in its classical form refers specifically to this type of research. Structured research: The teacher formulates a question for students and provides them with a research method, but its result is unknown. Students must find the answer themselves and explain the phenomena or facts they discover in the process. This type of research can already be used as a summative assessment. Accompanied research: Students receive only a question, and they must find the answer and explain the results independently, choosing an appropriate method. This type of research demonstrates the development of relevant subject and meta-subject skills. Universities (as well as many lyceums and gymnasiums) often use supported research as coursework.

The inquiry-based learning model has unique characteristics that make it effective and popular in the educational process. The focus is on actively engaging students in the learning process through practical research and solving real-world problems. This promotes the development of critical thinking and analytical skills necessary for success in the modern world.

An important aspect of this model is the individualization of learning, which allows each student to work at their own pace and in accordance with their personal interests. This creates motivation and promotes deeper learning. Using a variety of information sources and research methods helps students develop independent study skills and the ability to find and process information.

It's also worth noting that the inquiry-based learning model fosters team spirit and collaboration among students. Working in groups allows for the exchange of ideas and opinions, which enriches the educational process and improves the quality of knowledge acquisition.

Thus, using a research-based learning model not only makes the learning process more interesting and interactive, but also prepares students for the challenges of future professional activity.