Who traveled abroad to study from Russia before Peter the Great and what to do?

Contents:

• Where and what did residents of Muscovite Rus' go to study?
• How Ivan the Terrible motivated students to study well?
• How boyar children were sent to study in Europe and could not be brought back?
• What happened next until Peter I took up the topic of foreign education?

This article will introduce you to the main aspects of the topic. We will cover key points that will help you gain a deeper understanding of the subject matter. The main ideas will be presented in an accessible format, making the information easier to digest. We invite you to immerse yourself in the study and gain useful knowledge that may be useful in the future.

• How Vasily III organized the training of diplomats on exchange with the Teutonic Order, where the first printer Ivan Fedorov could study and why these were rare exceptions.
• How Ivan the Terrible motivated students to study well, presenting them with fur coats, but did not always take care of graduates as valuable specialists.
• How Tsar Mikhail Fedorovich tried for many years to achieve the return to Russia of young people whom Godunov had sent to study - but their lives abroad had already begun a completely different life.
• How, even before Peter I's decree on sending noble youth to study abroad, the young namesake of the Tsar voluntarily asked to go there - and a few years later it was he who organized the Grand Embassy for him.

Where

The first trips abroad for education began in medieval Rus', after liberation from the Golden Horde. However, travel outside the country was only possible with the ruler's permission. He could send a subject to study abroad, regardless of their wishes, which sometimes affected the quality of the educational process. Furthermore, the ruler had the right to demand the student's return at any time.

The princes of Muscovy, recognizing the growing importance of international relations, began actively sending their subjects to study abroad. This was necessary for the development of diplomacy and trade, which required knowledge of foreign languages. This need was partially met by invited foreigners who mastered Russian during their service. However, this was not enough to fulfill diplomatic tasks, as foreign subjects could not fully represent Russia's interests. Therefore, the princes sent their people abroad, where they not only studied languages ​​but also became acquainted with local customs and culture. This contributed to the development of qualified diplomats who could effectively represent Muscovite Rus' on the international stage.

We know of the diplomat Grigory Istoma, who participated in embassies to Denmark, the Holy Roman Empire, and Prussia. He was sent in 1496 to study languages ​​at the court of the Danish King Johan (John). History also mentions the Novgorod scribe and Muscovite diplomat of the 15th and 16th centuries, Dmitry Gerasimov, known by the nickname "Mitya Maloy, the Latin Interpreter." He was born around 1465 and lived until 1535 or 1536. Gerasimov studied Latin and German in Livonia and became one of the most educated people of his time. He translated a Latin textbook and a work on Magellan's circumnavigation into Russian. He also contributed to the compilation of one of the first maps of Muscovy during his diplomatic trip to Italy. These figures played an important role in the cultural and diplomatic life of their time, promoting the development of education and international relations in Russia.

There is an unconfirmed assumption that the first printer Ivan Fedorov studied at the University of Krakow and received a bachelor's degree in 1532. This information about his education emphasizes the importance of this educational institution in shaping the cultural and educational traditions of the time. Interest in the biography of Ivan Fedorov, one of the founders of Russian printed literature, continues to attract the attention of historians and researchers.

In 1499, Russian ambassadors made one of the first trips to study European education and culture. The delegation, led by Dmitry Ralev, the son of a Greek who entered the service of Moscow, visited the palace school of Vittorino da Feltre. At this educational institution, the teaching and education process was based on the principles of the Renaissance. This event marked an important step in the cultural exchange between Russia and Europe, opening new horizons for the development of education in the country.

In the 16th century, princes actively organized educational exchanges, which contributed to the development of diplomatic relations. One example of such exchanges is Moscow's contacts with the Teutonic Order. In 1519, the Grand Prince of Moscow, Vasily III, entered into an alliance with Master Albrecht of Brandenburg to wage war against Poland. An important aspect of this cooperation was the need for translators fluent in German, Latin, and Russian. As a result, the parties agreed to send diplomats to each other for training. Thus, the nobleman Konstantin Zamytsky went to the Order, while Wolfgang Pog studied in Novgorod. These exchanges not only contributed to the improvement of the language skills of diplomats, but also strengthened international ties between states.

Overall, the Muscovite state remained closed and isolated, despite rare exceptions. The "Moscow as the Third Rome" theory only reinforced this perception. The tradition of Greco-Latin scholarship was not widespread, and the education of the nobility did not include the mandatory study of foreign languages. The idea of ​​sending children to study abroad was rare in boyar families. The main reasons for this were that the clergy perceived Western education as a threat to Orthodoxy and a danger of the spread of Catholicism in Russia. Western culture and scholarship were considered mired in heresy. Therefore, the initiatives of rulers such as Ivan the Terrible and Boris Godunov to open Latin schools in Russia and establish a university in Moscow remained only in the planning stage.

Foreign citizens showed greater interest in studying in Russian lands than Russians did in studying abroad. This trend was explained by the need for foreigners to master Russian for business. Some of them, after completing their studies, remained in Russia to teach their language to Russian citizens.

How Ivan the Terrible motivated students to study well

Ivan the Terrible sent young men to study abroad, which underscores the importance of these events for the development of the Russian educational system. By direct decree of the tsar, young men were sent abroad, which testifies to the high level of control Ivan the Terrible exercised over the educational process. These trips had a significant impact on the formation of new knowledge and skills necessary for the modernization of Russia during this period.

In 1551, a young man named Fyodor Obryuta Grekov, likely the son of a Greek in Russian service, was sent to Greece, specifically to a monastery on Mount Athos. In the accompanying documents, Ivan the Terrible requested that Obryuta be taught Greek literacy and language, while promising to cover all the costs of his education and upkeep. According to Patriarch Joasaph II of Constantinople, after seven years of study, Feodor reached a level sufficient to translate documents, demonstrating his success in mastering Hellenic literacy. In 1558, he returned to Moscow and began serving in the Ambassadorial Prikaz. This experience marked an important stage in the development of Russian diplomacy and cultural ties with Greece. Not all those educated abroad enjoyed Ivan the Terrible's protection upon their return home. Education did not guarantee them safety from the Tsar's cruelty. One of the first Russian political émigrés was Andrei Kurbsky, who, among the victims of the Tsarist terror, mentioned a young man sent abroad to study in Germany. This young man spent a long time studying the German language and culture, traveling throughout Germany, but upon returning home, he did not escape the repressions. Thus, education abroad did not always protect against political persecution in Russia.

During the final years of Ivan the Terrible's reign, a group including "Dirty Ushakov and Fedka Vnukov" was sent to Constantinople to receive an education. The Tsar allocated 30 rubles for this purpose, instructing the ambassador to deliver it directly to the young men before the Patriarch of Constantinople. Ivan the Terrible also ordered the patriarch to pay attention to these students, to protect them and teach them, without giving them too much freedom.

According to letters sent by the Patriarch of Constantinople to Ivan the Terrible, teaching students was difficult. The Patriarch noted that the students were too old for the curriculum. In his next letter, he recommended sending younger students, aged 10-12, which would facilitate more effective acquisition of knowledge and facilitate the learning process.

You wrote to us that two young men, Gryaznushka Ushakov and Fedka Vnukov, were sent to you to teach Greek and literacy. You mention that you are having difficulty teaching them because they are already mature. If they were younger, 10 or 12 years old, the learning process would be more effective. Under the current circumstances, learning requires considerable effort, and patience and persistence are essential.

The following year, Ivan the Terrible sent Gryaznushka Ushakov and Fedka Vnukov to study, allocating them "a fur coat, underwear, a fur coat, and slippers, as well as 10 rubles each for pocket money." The purpose of the trip was to study Greek and read and write, with an emphasis on diligence and discipline. They were to follow the patriarch's instructions and focus on their studies, rather than being distracted by entertainment, in order to quickly master knowledge.

There is no precise information about the subsequent fate of these objects. Historical sources provide no information about what happened to them in the following years. The uncertainty about their fate leaves room for various interpretations and research, making them of interest to historians and archaeologists.

Educational trips to Greece during the reign of Ivan the Terrible were quite frequent. The Tsar's envoys not only studied Greek but also established contacts with other Orthodox countries, such as Greece, Serbia, and Bulgaria. They also purchased manuscripts for educational purposes in Russia. These trips were considered important for acquiring spiritual experience and strengthening faith.

In the 1570s, Tsar Ivan the Terrible sent young men to various countries, including Sweden, to study the local language. At the time, there was a high demand for Swedish-speaking specialists, which sometimes led to native speakers being held in the country against their will. By order of the Russian monarch, the Swedish translator Obramko Nikolaev, who was tasked with teaching two Russian students Swedish, was detained. At the same time, Nikolaev himself studied Russian, which underscores the importance of language exchange and cultural ties between Russia and Sweden during this period.

After the death of Ivan the Terrible, the practice of sending future translators abroad continued. During the reign of his son Fyodor Ivanovich, in 1594, Tarasko Elizariev went to study in Greece. Information about his subsequent fate has not survived. This practice of studying abroad contributed to the development of translation activities in Russia, which in turn influenced cultural and scientific exchanges between the countries.

Among the people of that time, there were those who sought to study languages ​​not by royal decree, but out of genuine interest. The story of Petrushka Lukyanov, the so-called "plowed man", clearly illustrates the difficulties of travel and possible misunderstandings. In 1583, driven by personal desire, he traveled to Antwerp and then to Denmark to pay off his debts and simultaneously study the "sciences of the German language." His stay abroad lasted nine years. Upon returning home, he received a "letter of release" from the Danish king, allowing him to cross the border. At that time, passports certifying citizenship did not yet exist, and permission from one's ruler was required to freely leave the country. This story confirms how difficult and risky travel could be in the 16th century and underscores the importance of language learning as a means of personal and cultural development. At the border, Lukyanov encountered arbitrary treatment when a Danish official confiscated his letter of release and sent him back to Danish lands with a bailiff. However, he was fortunate to meet Danish captains who, after listening to his story, helped him find Russian guarantors. These guarantors confirmed that Lukyanov was not a Danish subject but a Muscovite, which allowed him to board a ship bound for Russia. As a result, Lukyanov successfully returned home. Later, Russian ambassadors detailed this unfortunate situation in a letter to the Danish king, emphasizing that Danes had also been living in Russia for many years to trade and study Russian, without experiencing any obstacles in their travels home.

Petrushka, having returned to his homeland in Kola with Captain Thomas Norman on a ship, remained with his mother and brothers. We inform Your Royal Majesty of this and hope for your gracious decision. We are confident that Your Majesty will not hold a grudge against us, as many people from your kingdom continue to live in our country, including for trade and to study Russian, literacy, and other matters. They are completely safe and respected, living there for five years or more, and return home without any obstacles or delays.

This document contains a charter addressed to the Danish King Christian IV, which was drawn up by the voivode and viceroy of the Bryansk prince Semyon Grigorievich Zvenigorodsky. It also mentions the nobleman Grigory Borisovich Vasilchikov and the clerk Ivan Maximov. The charter dates back to 1592 and reflects the important historical ties between Russia and Denmark during that period. This text serves not only as a record of diplomatic relations but also as a valuable source for studying the social and political structure of the time.

How boyar children were sent to study in Europe and were never brought back

After the death of Ivan the Terrible, Russia's trade ties intensified significantly, especially with England. In 1587, England received exclusive rights to duty-free trade with the Russian Tsardom, which contributed to the development of economic relations between the two countries. This agreement opened up new opportunities for trade and exchange of goods, which in turn contributed to the growth of Russia's economic potential and the strengthening of its position on the international stage.

In 1602, a group of young men, having received financial support, set off for England. Together with the merchant agent Sir John Merrick, they left Arkhangelsk and arrived in the British Isles. The English government distributed them among various universities, such as Winchester, Eton, Cambridge, and Oxford. This event became an important step in the cultural exchange between Russia and England, promoting the development of education and strengthening ties between the countries.

Eleven years after the end of the Time of Troubles, the new Tsar, Mikhail Feodorovich Romanov, learned that young people educated at state expense were in England. He sent an embassy to Foggy Albion with a request for financial support and the goal of ascertaining the fate of these students, as well as returning them to their homeland, as the country needed qualified personnel to work at the embassy. The embassy was issued a letter of instruction, containing detailed instructions on what and how to report. A surviving document indicates that by that time, the exact number of those sent for study had already been lost (four were sent, but six were requested), and the names of one of the students had been confused.

His Tsarist Majesty is constantly receiving requests from the parents of his subjects, asking for mercy and desiring that their children be transferred from English lands to Moscow. These families are concerned that their children, spending long periods in foreign lands, may lose their faith and connection with the Orthodox tradition. According to His Tsarist Majesty's order, these subjects must be gathered and returned to Moscow. We ask for your assistance in locating and handing over all the aforementioned subjects, in accordance with the instructions of our sovereign.

These subjects of His Majesty, residents of the Muscovite state, and not foreigners professing the Greek faith, have living parents and brothers. During the reign of Tsar Boris, they were sent to gain knowledge and were placed at the disposal of the famous English guest Ivan Ulyanov.

The original text is an ambassadorial mandate addressed to the governor of Shatsky, A. I. Zyuzin, and the clerk A. Vitovtov, with instructions on their mission to England in 1613. This document contains important instructions and recommendations for the successful completion of their diplomatic mission.

Ambassadorial mandates played a key role in shaping foreign policy and strengthening international ties. In this case, sending ambassadors to England was part of a broader strategy aimed at developing trade relations and political cooperation.

These historical documents provide valuable information about the diplomatic practices of the time, as well as Russia's attitude toward Western countries. Studying such texts helps us better understand the context and motivation behind the foreign economic and political steps taken in the 16th and 17th centuries.

Thus, the order received by Zyuzin and Vitovtov not only reflects specific instructions but also serves as evidence of the historical processes taking place in Russia and its interactions with foreign powers.

The negotiations dragged on for several years and yielded no results. The British side had no intention of letting the "boys" go home, claiming that they themselves did not wish to return. The Moscow ambassadors did not believe this for a long time, believing that the "boys" had been instilled with uncertainty or intimidated.

Two Russian students, Saphon Mikhailov and Kazarin Davydov, decided to pursue a career in commerce, joining the East India Company and traveling to India. At the same time, Fyodor Kostomarov held the post of secretary to the English king in Ireland. Mikiforka (Nikifor) Grigoriev (Olferyev), after graduating from university, converted to Christianity and became an Anglican pastor, then a parish rector. These events caused a significant stir in his homeland. Ambassadors reported: "He apostatized from the Orthodox faith and, for some unknown reason, became a priest." According to some sources, there were repeated attempts to persuade Grigoriev to return to his homeland, even attempting to take him away by force, but all attempts were unsuccessful.

Nikefor Alferi, mentioned in the British Dictionary of National Biography, is known for his events related to the English Civil Wars. During one of the conflicts, he lost his parish. However, many romantic myths have grown up around his personality. Some believe he was descended from a royal family and that he was sent to study in England by an English merchant living in Russia to protect him from threats from the authorities. These legends emphasize the drama of his fate and the interest in his life in the historical context.

In 1617, during negotiations for the return of Russians to their homeland, John Merrick, son of the translator of the Ambassadorial Prikaz, Ivan Almanzenov, was sent to England to study. Almanzenov successfully studied at Cambridge, which allowed him to continue his education in France and Italy, as was common among English students of the time. In a letter addressed to Mikhail Feodorovich in 1629, King James I emphasized Almanzenov's success in learning English, Latin, and Greek. He also announced that upon returning from the mainland, Almanzenov intended to study medicine to be of service to the sovereign. Almanzenov fulfilled his intention and became a doctor of medicine, returning to the Russian Tsardom in 1645.

What happened next before Peter the Great took up the issue of foreign education

During the period up until the reign of Peter the Great, the practice of sending Russian young people abroad in groups to study ceased. Nevertheless, proponents of foreign education continued to exist. For example, Prince Vasily Golitsyn, a favorite of the regent Sophia, proposed sending the children of boyars to Polish schools and inviting Polish tutors to Russian families. This underscores the interest in foreign educational traditions in Russia and the desire to study abroad, which could have influenced the development of the educational system in the country.

Golitsyn perceived Poland as a bridge connecting Europe and Russia. It was through this country that Western knowledge and cultural influences flowed to the Belarusian and Ukrainian lands, and then to Moscow. Poland played a key role in the exchange of ideas and traditions between East and West, facilitating cultural interaction and the development of society.

From the late 16th century, Latin schools began to open in Moscow, giving the children of the nobility the opportunity to study Latin and Greek. At this time, the practice of inviting foreign teachers became popular. A striking example of this approach is Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich, who ordered that his eldest sons, Alexei and Feodor, be taught Latin and Polish. In 1673–1674, the Tsar sent Jacob Reitenfels, an adventurer and traveler, the nephew of his personal physician, originally from Poland, to Vilna (Vilnius). However, instead of focusing on his studies, Reitenfels went to Rome to propose Catholic missionary projects in Muscovy, which ultimately proved unsuccessful.

With the advent of the Petrine era, when the young reformer tsar conceived of creating a "window to Europe," Russia needed educated people by European standards. In 1692, several years before the Grand Embassy, ​​in which Peter I himself participated, and before the issuance of the famous decree requiring the education of noble youth abroad, the tsar sent Pyotr Postnikov to the University of Padua. This young man, the son of a clerk of the ambassadorial office and a graduate of the Slavic-Greek-Latin Academy, sought to obtain an education abroad. Although his father was a diplomat and taught his son several foreign languages, Pyotr Postnikov was not interested in diplomacy, but in medicine, which he wanted to study. In Padua, Italy, he earned a doctorate in medicine and philosophy, and then continued his studies at the Universities of Paris and Leiden. Returning to Russia, Postnikov was tasked with organizing the Grand Embassy for the Tsar. This event marked the beginning of a new era of foreign education for Russians.

Primary sources of information play a key role in developing knowledge and understanding of various topics. These include books, articles, scholarly research, online resources, and specialized databases. Using reliable sources allows you to obtain accurate and up-to-date data, which is especially important for professional activities and the educational process. In addition, it is important to critically evaluate information to avoid the dissemination of inaccurate information. Effective search and use of primary sources contributes to a deeper understanding of the subject and the development of analytical skills.

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