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Find out moreHow schools were declared free, but fees were quickly reinstated
At the beginning of their rule, the Bolsheviks enthusiastically proclaimed compulsory and free primary education for all children aged 6 to 17. They emphasized the humane nature of this initiative and the significance of the task, which had no analogues in history. In accordance with the Regulation on a Unified Labor School, adopted in October 1918, not only education was to be free, but also the organization of meals in the form of free breakfasts for schoolchildren. However, the real situation turned out to be far from the ideals voiced on paper.
In reality, the war continued, and the new authorities did not control a significant part of the country's territory. As a result, many schools continued to operate as usual. Soviet leaders recognized that the implementation of the many new educational reforms planned could not be accomplished overnight. Moreover, the Bolsheviks had not initially intended to guarantee full, comprehensive, and free education for all. The 1918 Constitution of the RSFSR clearly stated that only the children of workers and peasants had the right to education. Thus, the educational policy of that time remained limited and did not cover all segments of the population.
It soon became obvious that even limited democratization of the educational system was impossible under conditions of war, revolution, and famine. The central government faced a lack of funding to maintain schools, which led to a reduction in the number of educational institutions instead of increasing them. The remaining schools experienced significant difficulties in meeting basic needs.
Before us are ruined buildings, unheated classrooms; windows boarded up instead of glass; children huddled together in the cold. Due to a shortage of boards, the teacher writes on the wall, and the children are forced to sit on the floor due to a lack of desks. There is no paper, no ink, no textbooks. A pencil costs the equivalent of 10 pounds of bread, and an ABC book costs one pood of bread. These words by Nadezhda Krupskaya, a representative of the Bolshevik State Commission on Education, reflect the critical situation in education at the time.
Under the current circumstances, preserving schools was only possible with the reinstatement of tuition fees. The Bolsheviks long resisted this step, limiting themselves to partial measures. Initially, funding for educational institutions was transferred to local budgets. For example, in 1916, the Ministry of Education covered 80% of the costs of maintaining secondary and primary schools, but by the mid-1920s, the share of funding from the central government had fallen to 7%. At the same time, local budgets also suffered from a shortage of funds, which exacerbated the situation in the education sector.
As a temporary measure, Soviet leaders introduced the practice of "self-taxation." This initiative entailed that volost executive committees, departments of public education, and newly created school economic councils collected funds for school maintenance directly from the population. This measure ensured the funding of educational institutions amid a budget deficit and increased the level of responsibility of local communities for the educational process.
The situation continued to deteriorate, and in December 1922, the 10th All-Russian Congress of Soviets decided to introduce tuition fees. This decision was a necessary step in the context of the economic crisis and a lack of financial resources for the educational sector. The introduction of tuition fees sparked much discussion and debate, as it could affect the accessibility of education for various segments of the population.
Given the Republic's dire economic situation, the 10th All-Russian Congress of Soviets decided to temporarily introduce tuition fees for schools of the first and second levels in cities and urban-type settlements, as well as for higher education institutions. This measure is aimed at supporting normal school life during a difficult transition period. The main burden will fall on the more affluent segments of the population, while preferential conditions are guaranteed for less affluent groups, including workers and war invalids. This decision will ensure access to education and maintain its quality in a resource-constrained environment.
The Resolution of the 10th All-Russian Congress of Soviets, based on the report of the People's Commissariat of Education, is an important document reflecting the development of the public education system in the Soviet Union. This collection of documents covers the period from 1917 to 1973 and highlights the key stages in the formation of the general education school in the USSR. It contains data on the policies and methods used to improve the educational process, as well as the importance of education for a socialist society. Studying this material allows for a better understanding of the historical contexts and changes that have occurred in the country's education system.
In March 1923, a resolution of the All-Russian Central Executive Committee and the Council of People's Commissars introduced fee-based education in all schools. This decision was an important step in the educational policy of the Soviet government, changing the accessibility of education for various segments of the population. Fee-based education has impacted the structure of the education system and created new challenges and opportunities in school education.
The implementation of the new regulation on fee collection in schools was uneven. Educational institutions for which charging fees had become a common practice effectively legalized their practices. Schools that previously provided free education began charging fees immediately after the regulation came into effect. However, some institutions did not implement fee collection until the end of the school year.
The initial results were disappointing. Schools collected significantly less funds than planned. By the end of the 1922/1923 school year, student enrollment had fallen by an average of 12%, a trend that continued into the following year. However, the communist authorities perceived this as a temporary setback. In 1924-1925, they continued to improve the tuition collection mechanism. School assistance committees, which included parents, were given the opportunity to oversee the implementation of the reform and consider issues related to fee reductions and exemptions. These measures were aimed at supporting the educational process and attracting more students in a time of economic hardship.
School principals transferred the collected funds through the cash desk of the Department of Public Education to the current account of the state bank. According to the estimates of the city executive committee, these funds were to be paid to schools upon their request. However, in practice, the funds weren't always available in the account, and their release was often delayed as the funds were reallocated to other local needs. As a result, schools continued to experience chronic funding shortages. In response to this situation, the People's Commissariat of Education decided to increase tuition fees.
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In the young USSR, the shortage of teachers was a serious problem requiring effective solutions. To address the staff shortage, the authorities implemented various measures. One of the primary methods was the rapid training of young specialists. Special courses and institutes were created to train teachers in short periods of time, emphasizing practical skills and teaching methods.
Furthermore, the Soviet government encouraged higher education by providing students with the opportunity to work in schools while studying. This not only increased the number of teachers but also attracted young people to teaching. The experience of veterans was also actively used, sharing their knowledge and methods with new staff.
An important aspect of solving the problem of teacher shortages was the attraction of graduates of pedagogical universities and specialists from other fields. Many young people who received education in related fields were ready to move into teaching, which helped improve the situation.
Thus, in the young USSR, effective strategies were developed to fill the teacher shortage, which contributed to the development of education and improving the quality of education in the country.
When the fee was finally actually removed
The Bolsheviks did not abandon the idea of free education, but realized that it was impossible to quickly implement this task under the existing conditions, so they postponed it for the future. The new Constitution of the RSFSR of 1925 enshrined the following provision: "In order to ensure working people have real access to knowledge, the Russian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic sets itself the goal of providing them with a complete, comprehensive, and free education." This decision reflects the state's commitment to creating equal opportunities for all citizens to acquire knowledge and education. During the transition to free education, tuition remained an important source of funding for schools. However, over time, the Bolsheviks began to abandon this practice. In 1925, only 40.7% of students' parents continued to pay tuition. The main burden of paying fell on people with "unearned" income, such as entrepreneurs (under the NEP, limited commercial activity was again permitted), religious ministers, and representatives of the "liberal professions," including lawyers, artists, and artisans. The remaining parents received benefits. By 1927, the proportion of paying parents had decreased to 27%. This reduction was due to the exclusion from schools of children of "disenfranchised" status, that is, citizens deprived of certain rights. Expulsion for non-payment was not permitted in schools, unlike in higher education institutions and technical schools. School legislation ensures the protection of students' rights, which excludes the possibility of their expulsion for tuition arrears. This creates certain differences in the education system, which emphasizes accessibility of education for everyone, regardless of the family's financial situation. In the event of non-payment of tuition at these institutions, the debt is collected from parents or guardians through court orders. However, the dismissal of children from social education institutions for non-payment is not permitted. The Resolution of the All-Russian Central Executive Committee and the Council of People's Commissars of the RSFSR of January 24, 1927, "On the collection of fees in educational and training institutions" establishes the rules and conditions regarding financial fees in educational institutions. This document regulates the procedure for collecting tuition and fees for education and defines the rights and responsibilities of educational institutions and parents. It is important to note that this decree is aimed at simplifying access to education and creating equal conditions for all students. Regulating tuition fees at educational institutions is a key aspect of the educational policy of the time, aimed at developing the country's education system.
Over time, the Bolsheviks increasingly granted requests for benefits or exemptions from fees for those who could not afford them. This included children from socially disadvantaged groups, such as the clergy. The People's Commissariat of Education clarified: "There is no reason to deprive children of the clergy of the opportunity to receive an education. Therefore, in each specific case, where financial insecurity has been proven, deviations from generally accepted norms should be allowed and children of the clergy should be exempted from fees or provided with appropriate benefits." This approach emphasizes the importance of equal access to education for all segments of the population, regardless of social status.
In 1927, tuition fees were abolished in primary schools, known as first-level schools, as well as in a number of other secondary schools, including schools for peasant youth. In the 1930s, public investment in education increased significantly, culminating in the complete abolition of tuition fees. This historic decision contributed to the availability of education for all segments of the population and had a positive impact on the level of literacy and education in the country.
In 1936, Article 121 of the new Constitution of the USSR proclaimed the right of citizens to free education. The document states that "citizens of the USSR have the right to education." This right is guaranteed by a comprehensive primary education and free access to educational institutions, including higher education institutions. Thus, the Soviet authorities emphasized the importance of education as the basis for the development of society and the personal opportunities of each citizen. This principle became a key element of educational policy in the USSR, ensuring equal conditions for all citizens.
What lever tuition fees became on the eve of the war
Soviet schools and universities remained free of charge only for a short time. In October 1940, a resolution of the Council of People's Commissars of the USSR was adopted, signed by Chairman Vyacheslav Molotov. This decision marked the transition to a new system of education financing, which significantly changed access to educational institutions and influenced the country's educational policy.
The Council of People's Commissars of the USSR, taking into account the increased level of material well-being of workers and significant state investments in the construction, equipping, and maintenance of a growing network of secondary and higher educational institutions, considers it necessary to shift part of the financial costs of education to the workers themselves. This decision is aimed at optimizing costs and ensuring the sustainability of the education system, which will improve the quality of education and the availability of educational places for everyone.
The Resolution of the Council of People's Commissars of the USSR of October 2, 1940, regulates issues of tuition fees in senior secondary schools and higher educational institutions of the country, and also changes the procedure for assigning scholarships. This document became an important stage in the history of Soviet education, as it introduced tuition fees for senior classes, which affected the accessibility of education for various segments of the population. Changes in the scholarship system also had a significant impact on students, determining their financial support and educational opportunities. This document is part of a broader context of the development of the educational system in the USSR between 1917 and 1973 and reflects the key changes that occurred in the field of public education.
Tuition fees were reintroduced for the senior grades - 8th-10th. What are the true reasons for this decision, if we do not take into account the "increased level of material well-being of workers"? There are likely several factors. One of them is the desire to ensure an influx of new personnel into blue-collar jobs.
In the past, as today, there were several key educational routes. After completing seven years of school, graduates could choose to obtain a blue-collar profession in primary specialized educational institutions, which became the prototypes of modern vocational schools. Another option was to obtain secondary specialized education in technical schools and higher-level educational institutions. Some students could continue their education until the tenth grade, as complete secondary education became ten-stage in 1934, when the nine-year school system was reformed. After completing the tenth grade, graduates had the opportunity to enroll in higher education institutions. Those who were unable to obtain the necessary school education, but aspired to enter a university or technical school, could compensate for the lack of knowledge by studying in evening schools or workers' faculties.
Reading is An important aspect of life that promotes the development of thinking, broadens horizons, and increases knowledge. No matter how modern technology develops, books remain an indispensable source of information and inspiration. They help us understand the world and ourselves, and can also serve as a great escape from everyday worries. It's important to choose literature that will develop you as a person and enrich your inner world. Read a variety of genres to find what truly interests you, and don't be afraid to experiment with new authors and themes. Books open doors to new worlds and offer the opportunity to see life from different perspectives.
The question of how many years of schooling do children in Russia and other countries around the world ask many parents and graduates. In Russia, schooling consists of several stages: primary school, basic general education, and secondary general education. Children begin school at the age of 6-7 and complete 11 grades, for a total of 11 years of study.
In other countries, the length of schooling may vary. For example, in the United States, schooling typically lasts 12 years, starting with kindergarten and ending in 12th grade. Most European countries, such as Germany and France, also have a 12-year curriculum, but the system may include different levels and types of educational institutions.
In some countries, such as Japan and South Korea, schooling also lasts 12 years, but the emphasis on extracurricular activities and exam preparation can significantly increase the total time spent studying.
It is important to note that different countries have different approaches to the education system and the duration of the educational process. These differences can impact the quality of education and the level of preparation of graduates, which in turn affects their opportunities for further education and employment.
In the USSR, the profession of a worker was considered honorable, but the prestige of higher education remained. Parents who could afford it tried to send their children to high school and then to universities to ensure they would pursue highly valued and well-paid professions, such as medicine or engineering. Technical schools were also popular among young people. However, primary specialized educational institutions were not particularly popular.
The state needed workers for construction and manufacturing, so introducing tuition for high school was a strategic move aimed at redistributing applicants. This decision allowed those who could not afford education to find work. The reform of the primary specialized education system led to the creation of factory training schools (FZO) alongside traditional vocational and railway schools. Young people aged 14–17 were accepted to the factory training schools, where they were trained in in-demand blue-collar jobs over a period of six months to two years. Education at these schools was free, and uniforms, meals, and dormitory accommodation were provided. Graduates were also granted a deferment from military service with the obligation to work for four years at enterprises. These measures helped meet the economy's need for skilled personnel and create a stable workforce.
The resolution introducing tuition fees for senior classes was adopted simultaneously with the decree of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR on state labor reserves. The essence of this decree was that between 800,000 and one million people were to be mobilized annually into factory schools and specialized vocational schools. This process was carried out virtually by force, which caused significant public concern and debate regarding the educational policy of the time.
Collective farm chairmen are required to annually allocate, as part of the draft, two male youth aged 14-15 to enroll in vocational and railway schools, as well as 16-17 year olds to factory and plant training schools for every 100 collective farm members. This includes men and women aged 14 to 55. This decision is aimed at developing vocational education and training qualified personnel for the economy.
The responsibility of city Councils of Workers' Deputies is to annually allocate male youth aged 14-15 to study in vocational and railway schools, as well as young people aged 16-17 to factory and plant training schools. The number of students allocated will be determined by the Council of People's Commissars of the USSR.
The Decree of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR of March 18, 1955, containing information on state labor reserves, was an important step in the development of the country's labor policy. The document, on pages 8 and 9, describes the main aspects of the creation and operation of labor reserves aimed at the efficient use of the workforce. The main goal of these reserves was to provide the USSR economy with qualified personnel, which contributed to the acceleration of industrialization and increased labor productivity. The decree also emphasized the importance of state control over the use of labor resources and the need for their rational distribution to achieve maximum efficiency in various industries.
The expulsion of high school students for non-payment became a common practice, which led to an increase in the number of conscripts into the army. In the face of the growing military threat, this measure acquired particular significance. In addition, the state sought new sources of revenue to fund various programs and initiatives.
After the end of World War II in 1947, the Supreme Soviet of the USSR amended Article 121 of the Constitution. The new version guaranteed free seven-year education, stating that "citizens of the USSR have the right to education." This right was ensured by compulsory primary education, as well as free seven-year education. However, tuition in high school was still required. Orenburg teacher M. A. Yumakaeva shared her memories of that time, emphasizing that despite legislative changes, financial barriers to education remained a pressing problem for many families.
In 1948, I entered the tenth grade of Tatar School No. 28. Education at this school was fee-based, costing 150 rubles per year. The first six months of my studies were financed by the teacher, and to pay for the second half of the year, I donated blood. This experience became an important part of my educational journey and demonstrated how much I am willing to do to gain knowledge.
G. V. Korablyov's article examines the implementation of the principles of accessibility and free education in the Soviet Union from 1917 to 1991. The author analyzes how these principles were implemented in the educational system and how they influenced the development of society. Key points regarding changes in legislation, the creation of educational institutions, and ensuring equal access to knowledge for all segments of the population are discussed. An important aspect is the impact of these principles on the socialization and cultural development of citizens, as well as the literacy and qualifications of the country's workforce. The article emphasizes the importance of accessible and free education as a factor contributing to social progress and economic development of the Soviet state.
In what year did the USSR completely abolish school fees?
The principle of free education, proclaimed in 1918, was restored almost 40 years later, in 1956. That year, the Council of Ministers of the USSR abolished tuition fees not only in schools, but in all educational institutions of the country. This decision made education accessible to wider segments of the population, contributing to an increase in the level of literacy and qualifications of citizens.
In order to create optimal conditions for the implementation of universal secondary education and providing young people with the opportunity to obtain higher education, on September 1, 1956, the USSR abolished tuition fees in senior classes of secondary schools, as well as in secondary specialized and higher educational institutions. This decision was an important step towards making education accessible to all segments of the population, contributing to the development of human capital and raising the overall level of education in the country.
The Resolution of the Council of Ministers of the USSR of June 6, 1956, was an important step in the field of education, abolishing tuition fees in senior secondary schools, as well as in secondary specialized and higher educational institutions of the USSR. This document played a significant role in making education accessible to all segments of the population, contributing to the development of the public education system in the country. The abolition of tuition fees allowed many young people to receive a high-quality education, which in turn had a positive impact on the level of qualifications of specialists and the overall socio-economic development of the state. This step became part of a broader state policy to improve the education system, aimed at increasing literacy and vocational training of citizens.
The abolition of tuition fees required the allocation of an additional billion rubles from the budget, but this did not change the opinion of the members of the Presidium of the CPSU Central Committee, who unanimously adopted the decision "Approve in principle." As a result, Article 121 of the Constitution was amended again, now stating that the right of USSR citizens to education is ensured by "free access to all types of education, both secondary and higher."
Textbook fees were officially abolished in 1978. This decision was a significant step in ensuring access to education for all students. The abolition of fees for textbooks contributed to the improvement of learning conditions and made educational resources more accessible to children from different social backgrounds.
Reading is an important aspect of our lives. It enriches our inner world, develops our thinking, and increases our knowledge. Books, articles, and blogs provide us with the opportunity to explore new ideas and gain useful information. It's important to choose quality sources to obtain up-to-date and reliable information. Reading not only entertains but also helps develop critical thinking, an essential skill in the modern world. Make time for reading to improve your knowledge and broaden your horizons.
The Big Break on Zarechnaya Street: How Adults Studied in Soviet Schools
The history of Soviet education is inextricably linked with the concept of the "big break." This important part of the school day not only provided students with an opportunity to relax, but also served as a place to socialize and share experiences. In Soviet schools, learning was not limited to children—many adults also returned to school. This phenomenon became especially relevant during periods of transition, when the need to improve qualifications and acquire new knowledge became a priority.
Adult students studying in Soviet schools often sought to improve their professional skills or master new specialties. Educational programs were diverse and included both general subjects and more specialized courses. This contributed to the creation of a unique atmosphere where the younger generation and adults could exchange knowledge and experience.
Zarechnaya Street, as a symbol of such learning, attracted people of all ages striving for self-improvement. The interaction between students and teachers created a dynamic educational environment where everyone could make a contribution. Importantly, this approach to learning contributed not only to individual development but also to the strengthening of social ties within society.
Thus, the big break on Zarechnaya Street was not just a moment of relaxation, but a symbol of the pursuit of knowledge and cooperation between generations. Education in Soviet schools influenced not only the personality of each student, but also the development of the entire society.
How much did school cost?
In 1922–1923, tuition fees were introduced, primarily affecting individuals outside the working class. The main criterion for determining the amount of fees was the social origin of students, not their financial situation. Certain categories of citizens, such as labor veterans, military personnel, teachers, the disabled, low-income workers, pensioners, and the unemployed, were exempt from paying for their children's education. The question of who should study for free and who should pay was decided by departments of public education, trade unions, and executive committees at various levels.
The All-Russian Central Executive Committee pays special attention to the issue of tuition fees for workers. It emphasizes that the amount of this fee should not exceed established standards. The Committee strives to completely exempt all workers from financial obligations for education, which is an important step towards improving working conditions and raising the qualifications of workers.
The resolution of the 2nd session of the All-Russian Central Executive Committee of the 11th convocation of October 15, 1924, "On measures for public education" was an important step in the development of the education system in the Soviet Union. The document emphasizes the importance of public education as a key element in the formation of a literate society and raising the level of education among the population. At a time when the country needed rapid recovery and development, an emphasis on educational initiatives contributed not only to the enlightenment of the masses but also to socialist construction. The collection of documents "Public Education in the USSR. General Education Schools. 1917–1973," published in 1974, contains important materials reflecting the evolution of the educational system and its role in shaping the new society. Fee-based education significantly exacerbated inequality in access to educational institutions. For example, in 1928, only two children from the working class were enrolled at Moscow's Korolenko School No. 19, renowned for its high-quality teaching. The remaining students were members of the party elite, NEPmen, and engineers, who enjoyed significant incomes at the time. The parents of these children effectively financed the school, supplementing the 18,000 rubles provided by the state with an additional 50,000 of their own money. A number of schools also had "contractual groups" where children from wealthy families of the early Soviet period were admitted for a fee. This underscores the extent to which fee-based education influenced the student body and perpetuated social inequality in the educational system.
A farm laborer and former Red Army soldier from the Urals expressed dissatisfaction with the lack of funds to pay for his brother's education. He lamented the difficulty of finding money for an education when he himself barely had enough to live on. He emphasized that only those with capital would be able to obtain an education and become scholars, while people from his circle remained as ignorant as before.
Tuition was determined as a percentage of income tax, ranging from 1 to 7 percent of income. However, the fee was not to exceed established limits. For example, the fee for peasants could not exceed twice the annual unified agricultural tax. This ensured accessibility to education, taking into account the financial capabilities of various population groups.
Between 1922 and 1929, the average salary in the USSR, according to official data, increased from 19.3 to 73.4 rubles. For families with an income of up to 40 rubles per month, school tuition cost 10 rubles per year, while for those earning over 125 rubles, tuition was 60 rubles. The highest expenses for their children's education were borne by merchants, clergy, and members of non-proletarian professions, where tuition ranged from 50 to 100 rubles per year. These figures varied depending on the region and the age of the student: younger grades required less expenses compared to older ones.
Each school allocated 25-30% of free places for children of Red Army soldiers, disabled children, pensioners, and the unemployed. From 1927, the proportion of such places was to increase to 50%. A 1924 decree exempted workers and employees with a salary below 50 rubles from tuition fees, which facilitated the accessibility of education for socially vulnerable categories of citizens. These measures helped create more equal conditions for education and social integration.
In 1927, tuition fees increased, while the number of payers classified as "non-working" elements decreased. Now they paid between 160 and 300 rubles annually.
Following the adoption of a decree in 1940, tuition for grades 8–10 in Soviet schools was set at 200 rubles per year for Moscow, Leningrad, and the capital cities of the Union republics. In other cities and villages, tuition was 150 rubles per year. These changes in the educational system reflected the state's commitment to making education accessible to all segments of the population, despite the economic difficulties of the time.
Tuition exemption applied to orphanages, children with disabilities, and pensioners. During the war, this benefit also extended to children whose parents were demobilized due to injury or died at the front, as well as to teachers. Tuition was abolished for residents of Central Asia and the Transcaucasus, where there was already a shortage of educated people. Tuition at evening schools was half that of regular educational institutions.
Is 150–200 rubles a year a lot or a little? To understand this amount, it's worth considering it in the context of average salaries in the USSR. In 1940, the average monthly salary was 331 rubles, and in 1945, it was 434 rubles. Thus, the cost of a year's tuition was lower than the average monthly salary. At first glance, 150–200 rubles shouldn't have been a significant financial burden. However, the reality was different. Soviet citizens received significantly less in cash, as deductions were made from their salaries for various defense and sports organizations, such as Osoaviakhim (the future DOSAAF), as well as contributions to government loans and other mandatory payments. This emphasizes that even relatively small amounts could have a significant impact on the family budget.
On collective farms, payment for labor days was often made in grain. During the war and post-war years, childcare fell primarily on women, who often raised families alone. On average, a single mother had between two and four children, which made life significantly more difficult. In such circumstances, most families experienced financial difficulties, and the sum of 150 rubles a year was large for many, and for some, completely unaffordable.
