Protein Functions: Why the Body Needs Them

Contents:

• What is protein
• Types of proteins
• How many proteins are there in the body?
• What functions do proteins have in the body?
• Is it possible to create a new protein?

This article will introduce you to the main aspects of the topic, which will help you better understand its essence and significance. We will cover the key points that play an important role in this area, and also provide useful tips and recommendations. Read on to gain valuable information and expand your knowledge.

• What is protein;
• What types of proteins exist;
• How many proteins are there in the body;
• What functions do proteins perform;
• Is it possible to create new proteins in the lab?

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What is protein

Protein is a key element of life on Earth and can undoubtedly be called the "molecule of life." When sending space probes to study possible life forms on Mars and the moons of Jupiter and Saturn, NASA scientists set them the task not only of finding water, but also amino acids - the basic building blocks of proteins. If the probe detects amino acids, this will be compelling evidence of the presence of life on the planet or its past existence. Research on proteins and amino acids is important for understanding the biochemical processes that can support life in a variety of conditions.

When analyzing any protein, an average of 300 amino acids can be detected. Amino acids play a key role in the formation of proteins, serving as building blocks from which a variety of structures can be created. Although there are only 20 different amino acids, their unique sequence and quantity determine the individual characteristics of each protein. This diversity makes proteins important components in biochemical processes and various bodily functions.

Proteins are formed through a process called protein synthesis. This process involves two main stages: transcription and translation.

In the first stage, transcription, the information encoded in DNA is copied into a molecule of mRNA (messenger RNA). This step occurs in the cell nucleus, where DNA serves as a template for mRNA synthesis. After transcription is complete, mRNA leaves the nucleus and travels to ribosomes located in the cytoplasm.

In the second stage, translation, mRNA is read by ribosomes, which bind amino acids in a specific sequence corresponding to the mRNA codons. Amino acids are linked by peptide bonds to form a polypeptide chain, which then folds into a specific three-dimensional structure to form a complete protein.

The process of protein formation is key to the functioning of cells and the entire organism, as proteins perform many functions, including structural, catalytic, and regulatory. Understanding protein synthesis properly is important for biology, medicine, and biotechnology, as disruptions in this process can lead to various diseases.

• First, amino acids are arranged into long chains called peptides.
• They fold like an accordion and form a helix.
• Several of these helices twist into a compact three-dimensional protein.
• Several proteins can combine to create a new molecule.

In Russian literature, the term "protein" arose thanks to the first experiments to isolate molecules, which were conducted using egg whites. In world science, the word "protein" is used to denote these molecules, introduced by the Swedish scientist Jöns Jacob Berzelius in 1838. The word "protein" comes from the Greek prōteios, meaning "first in importance." This term emphasizes the importance of proteins in biological processes and their key role in the structure and function of cells. Proteins are the fundamental molecules involved in biochemical reactions, making them essential for life.

Types of Proteins

Proteins can be classified according to their chemical composition as simple or complex. Simple proteins are formed solely from chains of amino acids, while complex proteins, in addition to amino acids, include additional non-protein components. This classification is important for understanding the structure and function of proteins in the body, as well as their role in biochemical processes. Simple proteins, such as albumins and globulins, perform a variety of functions, including transporting substances and maintaining osmotic pressure. Complex proteins, such as glycoproteins and lipoproteins, play a key role in cellular interactions and metabolism. Understanding the differences between simple and complex proteins is fundamental to studying their biological functions and potential applications in medicine and biotechnology.

A protein's name can indicate its additional components. For example, the name may indicate the presence of certain amino acids, vitamins, or minerals. This allows you to quickly determine the specific benefits a product offers. When choosing a protein, pay attention to its composition to choose the most suitable option for your goals and needs.

• metalloproteins contain metal ions;
• chromoproteins include pigment;
• lipoproteins are a "protein + fat" combination.

How many proteins are in the body?

Proteomics is a science dedicated to the study of proteins. In 2001, on the initiative of the international scientific community, the Human Proteome Organization (HUPO) was created. The main goal of HUPO is to develop a complete list of proteins present in the human body, as well as to create a molecular atlas of proteins for each organ and tissue. This research will help better understand the interactions between proteins and identify which of them may play a role in various pathologies. Proteomics is a key discipline for the development of medicine, as knowledge of proteins opens new avenues for the diagnosis and treatment of diseases.

As of April 2023, HUPO (Human Protein Optics and Proteomics Organization) has already made significant strides in the field of proteomics. The organization continues to actively develop research and collaboration in this key scientific field. HUPO aims to advance innovative technologies and methods that facilitate a deep understanding of the proteomes of various organisms. Importantly, HUPO's efforts are focused on creating a global platform for knowledge and resource sharing, enabling scientists and researchers to effectively collaborate and advance their research. These achievements highlight HUPO's importance as a leading organization in the field of proteomics, advancing science and technology.

• There are approximately 19,778 proteins in the human genome.
• 18,397, or 93.01%, have already been identified.
• The remaining 1,381 are called missing proteins [8].

It is important to note that 19,778 does not represent the total number of proteins in the human body, but the number of different types of proteins encoded in its genome. The same gene can be responsible for the creation of different forms of proteins. These proteins, after synthesis, undergo modifications, including the addition of other molecules, which leads to the formation of more complex compounds. This diversity of proteins plays a key role in the functioning of cells and body systems, ensuring the implementation of many biological processes.

What functions do proteins have in the body?

The function of a protein substance directly depends on its three-dimensional structure. Once a protein takes its unique shape, it is able to interact with other molecules, which allows it to perform a number of biological functions. These functions can include catalysis of chemical reactions, participation in the transport of substances, regulation of processes in the cell, and protection of the body from pathogens. The correct structure of a protein is critically important for its activity and role in living organisms.

Proteins play a key role in the binding and transport of substances between different tissues, as well as from the intercellular space into cells. The most well-known transport proteins include hemoglobin, which carries oxygen, albumin, responsible for the transport of fatty acids and hormones, and membrane transport proteins that regulate the movement of molecules across cell membranes. These proteins provide the metabolism necessary to maintain the vital activity of cells and tissues, and also play an important role in various physiological processes, such as the immune response and metabolism. Their functionality and structure make transport proteins indispensable in the biochemical processes of the body.

• Lipoproteins - participate in the transport of fats: cholesterol and triglycerides. Some lipoproteins deliver fat from the liver to cells, others "catch" cholesterol from the blood and transfer it to the liver cells. The former are called "bad" cholesterol, the latter - "good" [10].
• Transferrin - transports iron ions, and can carry more iron on its surface than it weighs itself [10].
• Albumin - makes up more than half of the blood proteins. Albumins carry hormones, drugs, bile acids, vitamins, and some trace elements, such as zinc. Albumins can also bind heavy metals and toxins to prevent them from harming the body [7].

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Zinc is an important mineral necessary for the normal functioning of the body. It plays a key role in maintaining the immune system, wound healing, and in the synthesis of proteins and DNA. Including zinc-rich foods in your diet will help ensure your body gets the required amount of this element.

The best sources of zinc include meat, especially beef and pork, as well as seafood, such as oysters and crab. Eggs and dairy products also contain significant amounts of zinc. Plant sources of zinc include legumes, nuts, and seeds, such as pumpkin seeds and cashews. Zinc is also present in whole grains, such as oatmeal and whole-grain bread.

Fruits and vegetables are not the primary sources of zinc, but some, such as spinach and mushrooms, can be beneficial additions to the diet. It is important to note that for better absorption of zinc from plant sources, it is recommended to combine them with foods containing vitamin C, which promotes its absorption.

Regular consumption of zinc-rich foods can help maintain health and improve overall energy levels.

Tissue respiration, in addition to pulmonary respiration, is an important process in which the body's tissues absorb oxygen and release carbon dioxide. This exchange requires specialized proteins—hemoglobin and myoglobin. Hemoglobin, found in red blood cells, is responsible for transporting oxygen from the lungs to the tissues, while myoglobin, found in muscle cells, facilitates the efficient storage and release of oxygen in the muscles. This mechanism ensures vital metabolic processes and maintains energy balance in the body.

Hemoglobin is a protein found in red blood cells that is responsible for transporting oxygen and carbon dioxide throughout the body. It plays a key role in providing tissues with the oxygen necessary for cellular function and removing carbon dioxide produced during metabolism. Blood hemoglobin levels are an important indicator of overall health and can indicate the presence of various diseases, such as anemia or other blood disorders. Maintaining normal hemoglobin levels is critical for the functioning of the entire body.

Myoglobin is a protein that is virtually absent from the blood but is found in significant quantities in muscle tissue, giving it its characteristic red color. Unlike hemoglobin, which readily releases and binds oxygen, myoglobin is designed to store oxygen. It actively releases oxygen under conditions of increased demand, when there is insufficient oxygen to meet the body's needs. This occurs, for example, during intense physical activity, when the narrowing of the small vessels supplying the muscles limits the flow of oxygen. In such situations, myoglobin becomes the primary source of oxygen for muscles, ensuring their performance and preventing fatigue.

The immune system has no specific location in the body. It consists of numerous cells and protein molecules found in the blood and tissues. The main protective components are antibodies, or immunoglobulins, which have a unique Y-shaped structure. This structure allows antibodies to effectively bind to foreign proteins, preventing their potentially harmful effects on the body.

Immunoglobulins have specific indentations that precisely match the shape of antigens—molecules that trigger an immune response. The presence of these antibodies, directed against pathogens, determines acquired immunity. This type of immunity is formed as a result of exposure to pathogens and helps protect against repeated infections.

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This is an important section where you will find additional materials that will help you deepen your knowledge on this topic. This collection of articles, research, and resources covers key topics and offers practical advice. Don't miss our recommendations to gain a comprehensive understanding and enhance your expertise in this area.

Immunity: How It Works and How to Boost It

Immunity is the body's complex defense system against infection and disease. It functions through the interaction of cells, tissues, and organs that identify and neutralize pathogens such as bacteria and viruses. Key components of the immune system include white blood cells, antibodies, and the lymphatic system.

There are two main categories of immunity: innate and adaptive. Innate immunity provides the first line of defense and includes physical barriers such as the skin and mucous membranes, as well as cells that quickly respond to infections. Adaptive immunity develops in response to specific pathogens and provides long-term protection through the production of specific antibodies.

Boosting immunity is a hot topic, especially in today's world, where infections are becoming increasingly common. To support and strengthen the immune system, it is important to eat a balanced diet rich in vitamins and minerals, exercise regularly, get enough sleep, and manage stress. Certain supplements, such as vitamin C, vitamin D, and zinc, may also help improve immune function.

It is important to remember that sudden lifestyle changes or excessive supplementation do not always lead to immediate results. Strengthening immunity takes time and a comprehensive approach. Regular medical checkups and vaccinations also play a key role in maintaining health and protecting against disease.

Vision, hearing, smell, taste, and touch are the five primary senses, which are formed by sensory nerve endings called receptors. These receptors are specialized proteins with a unique structure that respond to specific stimuli from the environment. Each of the senses plays an important role in perceiving and interacting with the world. Optimizing receptor function ensures the proper functioning of sensory systems, which in turn affects the quality of life and the perception of information.

• photoreceptors - to light waves;
• mechanoreceptors - to pressure or sound waves;
• thermoreceptors - to cold or heat;
• chemoreceptors - to dissolved sugar and acid molecules or volatile aromatic compounds [15].

Blood clotting is ensured by many proteins known as clotting factors. These proteins are inactive in the blood. When the vascular wall is damaged, sequential activation of clotting factors begins. As a result of this reaction, fibrin is formed - a dense insoluble protein that creates a strong three-dimensional network. Blood cells adhere to this network, leading to the formation of a stable clot that "seals" the damaged area of ​​the vessel. Blood clotting is key to preventing bleeding and maintaining homeostasis in the body. Muscle contraction occurs through the interaction of two filamentous proteins—myosin and actin. These proteins are arranged in parallel, and during contraction, actin slides over myosin, causing the muscle to contract. This mechanism plays a key role in the functioning of the muscular system and provides movement and strength. Understanding how myosin and actin work is important for understanding muscle physiology and developing treatments for muscle diseases.

In a healthy adult weighing about 70 kilograms, muscles make up approximately 40% of total body mass. Of this volume, approximately 20% is muscle protein. Therefore, the human body contains between 5 and 6 kilograms of muscle protein. Muscle protein plays a key role in maintaining health, providing the necessary strength and endurance. Proper nutrition and physical activity help maintain optimal muscle protein levels, which is important for overall well-being and fitness. Metabolism, or metabolism, continues even at rest or during sleep. In this process, complex molecules are broken down into simpler ones, which then form new complex compounds. Harmful substances are neutralized, and useful components are retained to support the body's vital functions. All these biochemical reactions occur with the participation of enzymes, which play a key role in accelerating chemical processes. Maintaining normal metabolism is important for health, as it affects energy levels, the functioning of the immune system, and the overall condition of the body. Enzymes are protein molecules that are highly specific in their action. The name of each enzyme ends with the suffix "-ase" and often begins with an indication of the substance it interacts with, as well as the type of reaction it catalyzes. For example, amylose is responsible for the breakdown of starch, and lipase is responsible for the breakdown of fats. These biocatalysts play a key role in various biochemical processes, accelerating reactions and supporting metabolism in living organisms. Understanding the function and mechanism of action of enzymes is important in fields such as medicine, the food industry, and biotechnology.

• Alcohol dehydrogenase - works in the liver and neutralizes alcohol. "Dehydro" means that the enzyme removes hydrogen from the ethanol (alcohol) molecule [19].
• ATP synthase - forms (synthesizes) the ATP molecule, which is used by cells to accumulate energy. There's also an ATPase, which, conversely, breaks down ATP to generate energy [19].
• H+-K+-ATPase is a proton "pump" in stomach cells. It "pumps" hydrogen ions (H+) into the stomach cavity in exchange for K+ ions. Hydrogen ions, along with chloride ions, create an acidic environment in the stomach. This process is very energy-intensive, which is why the "pump" contains an ATPase. Incidentally, H+-K+-ATPase is the "target" for drugs such as omeprazole and pantoprazole. All drugs in this group suppress the "pump" and reduce stomach acidity [20].

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Metabolism is a set of chemical processes occurring in the body that ensure the conversion of food into energy. It includes catabolism, associated with the breakdown of substances to release energy, and anabolism, which is responsible for the synthesis of components necessary for cells. Improving your metabolism is possible and depends on a number of factors, including physical activity, diet, age, and genetics. To boost your metabolism, it's recommended to increase your physical activity, include protein in your diet, drink enough water, and avoid strict diets. Maintaining muscle mass is also important, as muscle burns more calories at rest. A healthy diet and an active lifestyle can significantly impact your metabolic rate and overall health. The body is unable to digest food in its raw form. However, the digestive system contains enzymes that play a key role in the processing of proteins, fats, and carbohydrates. These enzymes ensure the efficient breakdown of nutrients, allowing the body to extract the elements it needs to sustain life. Proper digestive function and enzyme activity are important for overall health and well-being.

• Amylase — present in saliva and pancreatic juice to convert the complex carbohydrate starch into simple glucose.
• Lipase — breaks down large fat molecules (triglycerides) into simpler components: fatty acids and glycerol.
• Pepsin — works in the acidic environment of the stomach, helping to convert protein into peptides. The latter are chains slightly longer than amino acids [21].

There are enzymes designed to break down specific nutrients. For example, lactase is necessary for processing lactose found in dairy products. Some people have low lactase levels to begin with, which results in the inability to digest milk and dairy products. This condition is known as lactose intolerance. Lactose intolerance can cause discomfort and a variety of digestive disorders, making it important to understand the role of enzymes in the digestive process. Understanding and supporting digestive health with enzymes can improve the quality of life for people with intolerance.

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15 and more healthy foods for gut health

Gut health plays a key role in a person's overall well-being. Eating right and including certain foods in your diet can significantly improve digestive health. Here is a list of over 15 foods that promote gut health. Fruits and vegetables, such as apples, bananas, broccoli, and carrots, are excellent sources of fiber, which is essential for normal digestion. Fiber helps prevent constipation and promotes healthy gut flora. Kefir and yogurt contain probiotics, which help restore and maintain healthy gut flora. These fermented foods improve digestion and boost immunity. Whole grains, such as oatmeal, quinoa, and brown rice, are rich in fiber and essential nutrients. They promote regular bowel movements and improve overall health. Nuts and seeds, including almonds, walnuts, and chia seeds, are also beneficial for the gut. They are sources of healthy fats, protein, and fiber, making them a great addition to any diet.

Legumes, such as lentils and beans, are an excellent source of plant-based protein and fiber. Regular consumption of them helps maintain gut health and prevent various diseases.

Spices like turmeric and ginger have anti-inflammatory properties and promote digestion, making them beneficial for your gut.

Including these foods in your daily diet will help maintain gut health and improve overall health. Take care of your gut to ensure optimal health and well-being.

Every tissue in the body contains a structural "scaffold" made up of collagen fibers that provides strength to organs. Collagen is the most abundant protein in the human body. It is found in the greatest quantities in bones, tendons, ligaments, and skin. Collagen plays a key role in maintaining tissue elasticity and strength, making it important for organ health and function. Maintaining collagen levels in the body helps improve skin condition, strengthen joints, and prevent age-related changes.

Some hormones are proteins by nature. These hormones include, for example, insulin, which plays a key role in regulating blood sugar levels, as well as growth hormones, which are responsible for tissue development and growth. These protein hormones are synthesized in the endocrine glands and released into the bloodstream, where they perform their physiological functions by interacting with target cells. Understanding the role of protein hormones is important for studying the endocrine system and its impact on human health.

• Insulin — helps glucose enter the cell.
• Somatotropin — "growth hormone", stimulates tissue growth.
• Thyrotropin — causes the thyroid gland to secrete more hormones.
• Follicle-stimulating and luteinizing hormones — regulate ovarian function and the menstrual cycle.
• Oxytocin — initiates labor [23].

There are proteins known as "storage" proteins, which perform the function of storing minerals in the body. One such protein is ferritin, which is responsible for the accumulation of iron. Ferritin has a spherical structure and is capable of holding up to 4,500 iron atoms in its center. These proteins play an important role in metabolism and maintaining normal mineral levels in the body, which is critical for health.

Proteins are important "calorie carriers," just like carbohydrates and fats. The breakdown of 1 gram of protein releases 4 kcal of energy, which is equivalent to the same number of calories from 1 gram of carbohydrates. However, protein compounds perform numerous functions in the body, making their use as a primary energy source impractical when carbohydrates and fats are available. Therefore, protein should be considered a reserve source of calories. The body will resort to using it only after depleting its carbohydrate and fat reserves.

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Protein-rich foods play a key role in the diet, promoting muscle growth and maintaining health. This list presents the 20 most nutritious sources of protein that can be easily included in your daily menu.

Chicken breast is one of the most popular sources of protein, providing a high content of this macronutrient with low fat levels. Turkey is also an excellent alternative, offering similar properties. Eggs contain complete protein and many vitamins, making them a versatile food.

Dairy products such as Greek yogurt and cottage cheese contain not only protein but also calcium, which is good for bones. Fish, including salmon and tuna, provide the body with omega-3 fatty acids and are an excellent source of protein.

Legumes, such as lentils and beans, are plant-based alternatives rich in protein and fiber. Nuts and seeds, such as almonds and chia, not only contain protein but also healthy fats.

Quinoa and buckwheat are grains that provide the body with complete protein and are a great addition to any dish. Soy meat and tofu are popular sources of plant-based protein that are suitable for vegetarians and vegans.

Including these 20 protein-rich foods in your diet can help improve your health, maintain energy levels, and support your fitness goals.

Is it possible to create a new protein?For more than fifty years, scientists have been searching for an answer to the question of the order of amino acids in proteins. This process is not random, and there is a certain pattern to it that was previously considered inaccessible to understanding. However, in 2024, the scientific community learned of the groundbreaking work of David Baker, Demis Hassabis, and John Jumper. Their revolutionary achievements in structural biology and protein synthesis earned them the Nobel Prize. These studies have opened new horizons in biotechnology and medical sciences, contributing to the development of more effective drugs and therapies.

David Baker created a new protein from amino acids using computer-aided design technology. Since then, his research group has developed a variety of unusual protein structures. These proteins have potential applications in medicine, including drug and vaccine development, as well as in the fields of nanomaterials and miniature sensors. Their unique properties open up new avenues for scientific research and practical applications in various industries.

Demis Hassabis and John Jumper have created an artificial intelligence model that accurately predicts the 3D structure of proteins based on their amino acid sequence. This innovation significantly accelerates and simplifies the drug development process, reducing the costs and effort required for research. Thanks to this breakthrough, scientists can more quickly find effective drugs for the treatment of various diseases, opening new horizons in medicine and improving access to medicines for patients.

Information sources play a key role in the process of acquiring knowledge. They can be varied: scientific articles, books, online resources, interviews, and statistical data. Each of these sources has its own characteristics and level of reliability. Scientific articles, as a rule, provide verified and substantiated data, making them a reliable basis for research. Books can offer a deeper understanding of a topic, but it is important to consider the relevance of their content. Online resources often contain information that can be both useful and questionable, so a critical approach to selecting sources is necessary. Interviews with experts and professionals in their field can add valuable perspective and practical experience. Statistical data helps support fact-based conclusions. Using a variety of sources allows for a more complete and objective understanding of the subject of study.

According to NASA, life may exist on the surfaces of the moons of Enceladus and Europa. These celestial bodies, located within our solar system, have conditions conducive to supporting life. Research shows that oceans containing the necessary elements for the existence of organisms are hidden beneath their icy shells. Scientists continue to study these moons to determine whether life is possible there. The potential for detecting life on Enceladus and Europa makes them important objects for future space exploration.

Alberts B., Johnson A., Lewis J. et al. Molecular Biology of the Cell. Fourth edition. New York: Garland Science; 2002. This edition provides a thorough understanding of cell biology and the molecular mechanisms that underlie life. Covering key topics, including cell structure and function, genetics, biochemistry, and cellular communication, it is an essential resource for students and professionals in the biological sciences, as well as for anyone interested in current advances in molecular biology. Studying this material helps develop a holistic understanding of cellular processes and their significance in biology.

Koshland Daniel E. and Haurowitz Felix in their work "Protein: Secondary structure", published in Encyclopedia Britannica in 2025, consider in detail the secondary structure of proteins. The secondary structure of proteins is a key element in understanding their function and stability. In this article, the authors analyze different types of secondary structures, such as alpha helices and beta sheets, and their influence on the overall conformation of the protein. Understanding these structural aspects is essential for further research in biochemistry and molecular biology. This article is an essential resource for students and professionals interested in protein structure and function.

B. L. Nilsson, M. B. Soellner, and R. T. Raines, in their paper "Chemical Synthesis of Proteins," published in the Annual Review of Biophysics and Biomolecular Structure in 2005, examine methods for the chemical synthesis of proteins. The study covers key approaches and technologies that enable the efficient creation of proteins with desired properties and functions. The authors emphasize the importance of chemical synthesis in biomedical research and the development of new drugs. Link to the article: DOI 10.1146/annurev.biophys.34.040204.144700.

Lipkin V. M., Shuvaeva T. M. in their article "Proteins (in Biology)" on the scientific and educational portal of the Great Russian Encyclopedia 2023 consider the importance of proteins in biological processes. Proteins perform key functions in the body, participating in the structure of cells, providing catalytic activity, regulating metabolism and supporting immune responses. The article also covers the structure of proteins, their classification and role in the vital activity of various organisms, emphasizing the importance of proteins for the health and functioning of living beings.

Jain A., Jain R., Jain S. conducted a study on the analysis of proteins in food. This research is presented in the book "Basic Techniques in Biochemistry, Microbiology, and Molecular Biology", published in the Springer Scientific Protocols series. The publication was published in New York in 2020. DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4939-9861-6_41. Analysis of proteins in food plays a key role in understanding their nutritional value and impact on human health.

Shugaley I. V., Garabadzhiu A. V., Tselinsky I. V. present the textbook "Protein Chemistry", published in St. Petersburg in 2010. The 200-page book covers the main aspects of the study of protein chemistry, their structure and functions. The textbook is intended for students and specialists in the field of biochemistry and molecular biology, and will also be useful to anyone interested in modern advances in protein science. The work systematizes knowledge about the chemical properties of proteins, their interactions, and their role in living organisms.

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The Human Proteome Organization (HUPO) is an international organization created to support and coordinate proteomics research. HUPO brings together scientists and researchers from around the world seeking to understand the structure, function, and interactions of proteins in the human body. The organization's primary goal is to advance proteomic research and develop standards, methods, and technologies necessary for high-quality analysis of the human proteome. HUPO also promotes information exchange and collaboration across scientific communities, which in turn helps accelerate progress in medicine and biotechnology. Membership in HUPO provides researchers with access to up-to-date data, educational resources, and networking opportunities, making the organization an essential hub for anyone interested in proteomics and its applications in healthcare.

Wang M., Zhang R., and Su D. investigated the abundance of proteins in the human body. Their work, published in the Chinese Scientific Bulletin in 2017, provides valuable data on human protein composition. This article discusses various aspects related to the identification and classification of proteins, as well as their functional roles in biological processes. This study is an important contribution to the field of biomedicine and genomics, opening new horizons for further study of the human proteome. DOI: 10.1360/N972016-01016.

Emelyanov V. V., Maksimova N. E., Mochulskaya N. N. present a biochemistry textbook, published in Yekaterinburg in 2016. This 132-page work covers key aspects of biochemistry and is intended for students and specialists in the biological sciences. The textbook helps to gain a deeper understanding of the molecular processes occurring in living organisms and will be useful for studying the basics of biochemistry and its applications in various fields of science and medicine.

Human Biochemistry, authored by G. Litwack and published in 2008, is an important resource for the study of human biochemistry. In particular, Table 14-4 on page 889 provides valuable information necessary for a thorough understanding of biochemical processes in the body. This text is essential for students and professionals in the fields of medicine and biological sciences, as it helps them understand the complex aspects of human biochemistry. Studying the data presented in this table can significantly enrich their knowledge and practical skills in this field.

Trivedi D. J., Kulkarni S. P., and Mudaraddi R. in their article "Primary Myoglobinuria: Distinction between Myoglobinuria and Hemoglobinuria" review important aspects of the diagnosis of myoglobinuria. Published in the Indian Journal of Clinical Biochemistry in July 2017, the article highlights the importance of accurately distinguishing between myoglobinuria and hemoglobinuria for proper diagnosis and treatment. The authors present up-to-date data and recommendations that can assist clinical biochemists and physicians in their practice. DOI of the article: 10.1007/s12291-016-0607-4.

Agadzhanyan N. A. and Smirnov V. M. present a textbook on normal physiology, published in 2012 in Moscow. This publication, published by the Medical Information Agency Publishing House, is an important source of knowledge for students and medical professionals. The textbook covers key aspects of human physiology, providing readers with a deep understanding of the normal processes occurring in the body. We recommend that anyone interested in medical science read this work to expand their knowledge and improve their practical skills.

Janeway C. A. Jr., Travers P., Walport M., et al. present the seminal work "Immunobiology: The Immune System in Health and Disease", 5th edition, published in New York by Garland Science in 2001. This book is an essential resource for the study of the immune system, its structure and function, as well as the mechanisms of the immune response in health and disease. This publication covers a wide range of topics, including the cellular and molecular foundations of immunity, making it indispensable for students and specialists in biomedicine and immunology.

V. A. Tkachuk, A. V. Vorotnikov, and P. A. Tyurin-Kuzmin present the textbook "Fundamentals of Molecular Endocrinology," which examines in detail the topics of reception and intracellular signaling. This material was developed in accordance with the requirements of the Ministry of Education and Science of the Russian Federation and published in Moscow in 2017 by GEOTAR-Media. This textbook is a valuable resource for students and professionals in the fields of medicine and biology, providing in-depth knowledge of the molecular mechanisms of hormone action and their interactions with cells.

Risser, F., Urosev, I., López-Morales, J., and other authors in their work "Engineered Molecular Therapeutics Targeting Fibrin and the Coagulation System: a Biophysical Perspective", published in the journal Biophysical Reviews, volume 14, pages 427–461 (2022), examine molecular therapeutic approaches aimed at fibrin and the coagulation system. The study emphasizes the biophysical aspects of the development and application of these therapies, which may have significant implications for the treatment of diseases associated with bleeding disorders. DOI: 10.1007/s12551-022-00950-w.

Alipov N. N. presents the second edition of his book "Fundamentals of Medical Physiology", published in 2012 in Moscow by "Praktika" publishing house. This work is an important source of knowledge in the field of medical physiology, providing readers with an in-depth understanding of physiological processes and their significance in medicine. The book includes up-to-date data and research, which makes it an indispensable resource for students and professionals in the field of medicine.

Haurowitz, Felix and Koshland, Daniel E. present the article on keratin in the Encyclopedia Britannica, published in 2025. Keratin is an important structural protein that plays a key role in the formation of hair, nails, and the upper layer of skin in humans and animals. This protein provides strength and protective functions, making it indispensable in the biology of organisms. The study of keratin is important not only for understanding physiology but also for developing new treatments for diseases associated with its deficiency or abnormalities. The Encyclopedia Britannica provides an in-depth understanding of keratin, its structure, functions, and significance in various fields of science and medicine.

Li H. explores the role of mitochondria in medicine, highlighting their importance for understanding aspects such as disease, chronic illness, aging, and life itself. A 2019 article published in the Yale Journal of Biology and Medicine reveals key mechanisms of mitochondrial function and their impact on human health. This study may form the basis for new approaches to treating various diseases associated with mitochondrial dysfunction, opening up prospects for future medicine.

Maev I. V., Andreev D. N., and Zaborovsky A. V., in their article "Fundamental Principles of Acid Production in the Gastric," published in the journal "Medical Council" in 2018, examine key aspects of the formation and regulation of acid production in the stomach. The study delves into the mechanisms influencing gastric acid secretion and their importance for digestive processes. The article presents data on the physiological and pathological factors influencing the level of acid production, as well as their relationship with various gastrointestinal diseases. This work is an important contribution to understanding the role of gastric acid in maintaining health and treating diseases associated with digestion.

Strutynsky A. V., Roytberg G. E. Internal Diseases. The Digestive System: a study guide, 6th edition. Moscow: MEDpress-inform, 2021. 576 pages. This study guide is an important source of information for medical students and specialists in the field of gastroenterology. The book discusses the main aspects of the diagnosis and treatment of diseases of the digestive system, as well as modern approaches to their study and therapeutic methods. The publication has been updated to take into account the latest scientific advances and clinical guidelines, which makes it indispensable for practicing physicians and researchers in this field.

Potekhina Yu. P. in her work "Structure and Functions of Collagen" explores important aspects of this protein, which plays a key role in maintaining the structure and mechanical properties of tissues. Collagen is a major component of connective tissues such as skin, cartilage, and bone, and its functions extend beyond providing strength and elasticity to participating in healing and regeneration processes. A 2016 study conducted at the Nizhny Novgorod State Medical Academy highlights the importance of collagen in medicine and cosmetology, as well as its potential use in the treatment of various diseases. This work is a valuable contribution to understanding the biochemical properties of collagen and its role in human health.

Haurowitz, Felix, and Koshland, Daniel E. discuss protein hormones in their article for the 2025 Encyclopedia Britannica. Protein hormones play a key role in regulating various physiological processes in the body. These molecules, composed of amino acids, affect cells by binding to receptors and activating biochemical pathways. Understanding the mechanisms of action of protein hormones is important for medicine and biology, as they are involved in processes such as metabolism, growth and development, and immune responses. Research in this area continues to deepen our knowledge of hormonal regulation and opens new horizons for the treatment of various diseases.

In her book "Anemia of Chronic Diseases" (Moscow: GEOTAR-Media, 2020, 160 pages), E. V. Kryukova examines in detail issues related to anemia that occurs against the background of chronic diseases. The publication covers the mechanisms of anemia development, its diagnosis, and treatment methods. The book will be useful both for medical professionals and for students studying blood pathologies. Kryukova's work is a significant contribution to the study of this important topic and allows for a deeper understanding of the relationship between chronic diseases and anemia.

Protein in the Diet. MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia.

Protein is an essential macronutrient necessary for maintaining health and proper body function. It plays a key role in tissue construction and repair, as well as in the production of hormones and enzymes. Including adequate protein in your daily diet helps strengthen the immune system, improve metabolism, and maintain muscle mass.

There are many sources of protein, including meat, fish, dairy, eggs, legumes, and nuts. It is important to consider both animal and plant sources of protein for a balanced diet. The recommended daily intake of protein may vary depending on age, physical activity level, and health status.

A lack of protein in the diet can lead to various problems, including muscle loss, a weakened immune system, and delayed recovery from exercise. Therefore, it is important to ensure the variety and quality of your food intake to ensure your body receives the necessary amount of protein.

For more detailed information about dietary protein and its impact on health, you can consult medical resources such as the MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia.

The 2024 Nobel Prize in Chemistry. The official Nobel Prize website provides comprehensive information about the laureates, their discoveries, and their contributions to chemistry. The prize is awarded annually to scientists who have made significant contributions to the development of chemical science. The website features current news, biographies of the laureates, and details of the research for which the award was given. The Nobel Prize in Chemistry is one of the most prestigious awards in the world of science, highlighting the importance of chemical research for humanity.